^.^ /f<j^:/r!^jLy /fj^. 



-^/r 



o 







GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



EXPLAINED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES OF TRUTH 

AND COMMON SENSE, AND ADAPTED TO THE 

CAPACITIES OF^ ALL WHO THINK. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIYATS 
LEARNERS, 



BY WM, S. BALCH- 



" It may repress the triumph of malignant criticism to observe, that, if our lanouaee 
s not here fully displayed, I have only failed in an attempt which no human powerrhava 



hitherto completed."— ./oA?wo/j. 



BOSTON! 
B. B, MUSSEY, 29 CORNHILL, 

1889, 







Entered accordiog to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, 

BY WILLIAM S. BALCH, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Rhode»Island, 



3 h *l." ^1 



B, Cranston & Co, Printers*, 
Providence. 



PREFACEo 



Works on English Grammar are so numerous, that whoever increases 

the list owes an apology to the public. The apology for the present 

work w^ill be found in the work itself. It is believed to possess, at least, 

ne merit v/hich will secure for it a favorable hearing, its agreement 

/ith truth and common sense. 

Improvement is the order of the day. Most branches of literature, 
science; and art, have, within the last two centuries, been wonderfully 
mprcved. Geography, Arithmetic, Chemistry, Botany, Geology, and 
he higher branches of Mathematics, Natural and Moral Philosophy, 
dave been adapted to the capacities of children, because explained 
according to fact and common sense. In fine, almost every thing has 
received the improving and perfecting touch, except the system of 
teaching our own language. That remains nearly the same that it was 
in the dark ages, when ignorance and error, bigctry and folly, reigned 
supreme in the sanctuary of religion and in the halls of legislation, and 
the dim light of scholastic learning was confined within the precincts of 
the cloister. 

We might stop here and inquire. Why is it so ? Are teachers of 
common schools, preceptors of academies, professors of colleges, and 
men of science generally, satisfied with this antiquated system of 
exposition ? So far from it, it is believed very few teachers or learners 
approve it. Hence the manifold attempts to •'• improve, simplify, and 
explain^' a system with which none are satisfied. Of all these labors, 
commenced in benevolence and pursued v/ith faithfulness, what has been 
the sum? Has there been any real change, save, perhaps, in the manner 
of teaching ? Is not the svstem virtualiv the same ? 



IV PREFACE. 

The attempt here made is not to remodel the old s}'stem but to 
divulge a new one, in which the study of language is treated as a science 
instead of an ^^ art/"^ and the whole subject so presented to the student 
as to become matter of thought and investigation. The inseparable 
connexion between v/ords, ideas^ and things, is carefully observed, and 
the whole structure of language explained according to the guiding 
laws which operate in matter and mind. 

One great obstacle v/hich has hitherto prevented the advancement of 
this science, is the deference v/hich has been paid to the innumerable 
arbitrary ^' rules" and their •• exceptions" which have been substituted 
for reasons. In Arithmetic, no other rule than the simple factis required 
to teach the child that two and two make four 5 or that ^' two things 
mutually equal to a third are equal to each other." Why then are rules 
necessary to teach thrit a " verb must agree v/ith its nominative case in 
number and person ?" 

An essential defect in the old system of explanation is the imposition 
of mere forms and rules upon the memory, instead of facts and evidence 
upon the understanding. When these forms and rules ar3 forgotten, 
hardly a relic is left behind. As soon as the school is finished, and the 
text book closed, the whole is evaporated like a morning mist. The 
amount of time and money expended in the study of language on this 
method, to little or no good purpose, is incalculable, and the task has 
been any thing but pleasant. 

Another cause of the difficulty of which all complain is that our lan- 
guage, which is purely Teutonic in its character 5 that is, formed from 
the dialects spoken in the north of Europe 3 depends upon its manner of 
meaning for an explanation, but has been studied by the aid of the Greek 
and Latin, and languages in the south of Europe which are learned by 
the manner OiformaiiGn. 

Certain we are, that vv'liatever has been the cause, unconquerable 
difhcuUies have hitherto attended the study of our vernacular tongue. 
Some have imagined that a knowledge of it can not be gained without a 
tedious study of the ^'learned" or '^ dead languages 5" languages as 
unlike ours in their principles of construction as were the habits and 
institutions of the Greeks and Romans compared M'ith the Gotlis, Huns, 



PREFACE. V 

and Vandals, or even our own. It was the strangest idea that ever 
entered the head of an Englishman^ that his language could not be learned 
without following the dark windings of subtle schoolmen, thro the 
labyrinths of feudal times, to nations whose very language was driven 
from speaking lips by a race cf men who gave him substantially the 
character of his own tongue. 

The success v/hich has attended this course of exposition is too well 
known to need comment. .Notwithstanding the seventy eight attempts 
which have been made, in our ov,-n country, since the days of Lindley 
Murray, to " explain, improve, and simplify" the system so ^^ carefully 
compiled" by him, the study of our own language still remains as dull, 
dry, uninteresting, and profitless as ever. Whoever v/ould have a thoro 
knowledge of it are still directed to the dusty parchments of Greek and 
Latin. 

Can it be possible that the study of our language, if rightly explained, 
is dull or useless ? Our language is the essential instrument of a great 
share of our happiness, knowledge, and improvement, and is emploj-ed 
from the cradle to the grave by millions of thinking beings who have at- 
tained as high a degree of human excellence as any of the nations on 
earth, in the arts, sciences, philosophy, government, and religionj and yet 
we are told, its principles can not be explained or understood without a 
knowledge of the '^ dead languages !" The idea is prepcsterciis. 

When language shall be studied on philosophic principles, and learned 
according to reason and fact, it will be found that v,'hat exists in truth can 
be as correctly expressed in our language as in any other 5 and that what 
is opposed to fact in plain English can not be proved correct by the best 
Greek and Latin quotations. It is very proper to study the '' learned 
languages" as a means for revealing the truths contained in them. But 
when they are studied to acquire a knowledge of the structure of cur 
own, they injure rather than benefit. The idioms cf the languages are 
radically different, and can not be made to harmonize. 

The object in studying English Grammar is not merely to acquire a 
knowledge of mechanical parsing according to a system of arbitray rules. 
It is to learn the essential principles of human speech, and the best 
method for constructing sentences to express ideas according to the 



VI PREFACE. 

established idiom of the English language. Reasons instead of : ;>3 
should be taught to scholars^ that they may rely more upon themsei\ ^s, 
the convictions of their own minds^ and the facts in the case, for the 
correctness of their positions^ than upon a mere rule or rtiiiark of some 
celebrated author. 

Human testimony is valuable as evidence in a case of truth and error^ 
plainly within the reach of common minds 5 but it is poor authority where 
first principles are concerned. An essential fault heretofore has been^ 
that human authority has been too obsequiously obeyed 5 and scholars 
have been taught to think the end of grammar attained when they could 
construe a sentence according to a given author. This deference for 
great names and antiquated theories may not attach exclusively to the 
study of language. Every improvement has encountered it. Gallileo did 
not explode the Alexandrian theory, and establish a truer one^ without 
the denunciation of kindred philosophers. Even Ecclesiastics^ forgetting 
that a knowledge of nature's laws would bring the enlightened soul inta 
closer communion with the all-pervading spirit of the great Author of 
matter and mind; chastised the heretic for his presumption in daring to 
depart from standard theories, and doubt the decisions of the Church in 
questions of astronomy I 

The author of this work believes that there is not only a willingness^, 
but a strong desire pervading the community^ to introduce a reform in 
the method and system of studying the English language. In many 
minds there seems to be a conviction that there must be a radical change. 
or that the study must be abandoned altogether. 

Fourteen years experience in the study and application of the principles 
involved in this work, and the testimony of every individual who has ex- 
amined them with candor and reason; has confirmed in the mind of the 
author their truth and importance. They have been approved and adopted 
by some of the greatest scholars, and introduced into some of the best 
schools in our country; where they have proved triumphantly successful. 

By the urgent request of many friends of education; and after delibe- 
rate reflection, the author ventures before the public with the present 
work. And tho he sincerely regrets that it had not fallen into abler 
hands, he feels encouraged by the many kind promises of aid from the 



PREFACE. Vll 

distinguished teachers and friends of learning) who have urged him to 
undertake its publication, and from a firm conviction that the principles 
here explained are true and of vital importance to the rising generation- 

The author has no titles nor public character to foster his production 
or recommend it to the favorable attention of the community. He sends 
it forth; like a poor man^s child, dependant upon its ow^n merits for suc- 
cess. He asks for it a candid examination, a frank adoption of what is 
proved to be correct, and as ready rejection of what is found to be false. 
If this is done, whether his book is generally circulated and adopted, 
or is left to slumber upon the shelf; he will be* content, and feel that 
satisfaction which is the boon of well-meant tho unsuccessful labors, 

April, 1839. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 

Mr. Daniel H. Barnes, the first Principal of^the New- York High 
School, a gentleman of the highest literary acquirements^ answered 
certain interrogatories proposed to him in relation to the system of 
exposition involved in this work, as it had been previously exhibited to 
the public by he labors of Mr. Cardell; in the following expressive 
language : — 

*' The remarkable difference between this new system, and the 
old one, induced me to institute a very rigid scrutiny, before any 
decision was made. Not being able myself to detect its fallacy, and 
finding no other person who even attempted it on reasoning princi- 
ples, I made trial of it with a class of very active and intelligent 
boys. We discussed every point, we combated every novelty, we 
fully convinced ourselves ; and the strong conviction of truth thus 
obtained is confirmed by every hour's reading and every day's expe- 
rience. To us the demonstration is irresistable. 

" Such alacrity in learning I have never before witnessed. Such a 
habit of thought and clearness of understanding ; such a determina- 
tion to take nothing for granted was induced as convinced me that 
th;s system is in practice all that it promises in theory, and as far 
superior to the old system, as truth is to falsehood. The subject of 
langua<re becomes intelligible and delightful, the multitude of phra- 
ses which are inexplicable by former rules become plain, beauty 
arises out of deformity, and order out of confusion. 

" This system, coinciding with the immutable laws of nature, ap- 
pears to be true universally in its application to languages, infallible 
in its results, and indeed the only one which properly illustrates the 
very important subject of which it treats. 

*' The economy of time and money, which would result from the 
general adoption of these principles, is incalculable ; and it is " most 
devoutly to be wished" that prejudice, bigotry and self interest may 
not prevent the accomplishment of so great a public good." 



INTRODUCTION. : 

CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE. 

1. Language is the expression of ideas, the means by 
which one person conveys his thoughts to the mind of an- 
other. 

Language* applies primarily to those sounds of the human voice 
which are significant of ideas. 

In its common acceptation it is applied to any system of sounds 
or signs by which the ideas of one person are made known to an- 
other. It is the vehicle of thought. If the signs have no mean- 
ing, the vehicle goes empty. 

2. It employs sounds or signs, and may be spoken or 
written. The written sign is intended to correspond with 
the spoken sound. 

These sounds or signs are varied according to the customs of the 
people who use them ; and their meaning may be simple or com- 
pound, literal or figurative. 

3. The English language was first spoken in England. It 
is now extensively used in America, in the south of Asia, in 
some parts of Africa, and in many islands of the seas. 



^Language, from the Latin lingua, French langue, (the tongue^) and 
4ig:ir, (to dd,) signifies, literally; tongue-work, 

2 



10 INTEODUCTION. 

Languages generally follow the course of emigration, commerce, 
and conquest. The nation which exerts the greatest influence 
over another usually introduces its own language, which, in process 
of time, becomes generally spoken. 

In some countries one language is employed in conversation, an- 
other in business transactions, and another still in religious ser. 
vices. 

The English and American nations are at present the most pow- 
erful and commercial nations in the world, and the English language 
is becoming the most extensively spoken of any on the earth. 

4. It is not a simple language, but is compounded of many 
of the European dialects, retaining an idiom peculiar to 
itself. 

RE3IARKS ON THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The Anglo-Saxon, which was a branch of the ancient Teutonic,, 
is regarded as the parent stock of the English language. 

The Angles and Saxons were two powerful tribes, or nations, 
who inhabited the northwest part of Germany, near the mouth of 
the river Elbe. 

They were descended from the Teutons, the most ancient in- 
habitants of Germany, v/hose early history is unknown. 

After the withdrawal of the Roman forces from Britain, (A. O. 
426,) the Scots and Picts, who inhabited the northern portion of the 
island, invaded the country. 

The Britons applied to the Angles and Saxons for assistance, to 
repel the incursions of the Scots and Picts ; who, under Hengisl 
and Horsa, having/orced them to retire from the country, took, in 
their turn, possession of Britain and forced the inhabitants to 
submit to their authority. 

Some of the Britons retired to Cambria, now Wales ; others to 
the northwest part of France, to which they gave the name Bre- 
tange; but many submitted to the authority of the Angles and Sax- 
ons, and adopted, in the main, their language, now called the 
AnglO'Saxon. 

Afterwards the Danes invaded England, and under Canute and 
his sons, held possession of it forty years. They of course, intro- 
duced their language into the country, which, however, like the 



INTRODUCTION. * 11 

Anglo-Saxon, was a dialect of the ancient Teutonic, the parent 
stock of the cognate languages of northern Europe. 

After the Danish authority was destroyed, Edward undertook to 
frame a code of laws for the Saxons and Danes, written in the un- 
settled dialect of the country. 

William, the conqueror, again changed the political condition 
of the country, and gave a new aspect to the whole affairs and lan- 
guage of the country. 

It was probably in the twelfth century, under the reign of Plan- 
tagenet, Henry II, that the English language assumed its present 
distinctive character, and became the language of the court and 
common people. 

Since that time, it has been continually changing ; new or foreign 
words have been added ; many old ones have been altered in form or 
meaning ; some havo become obsolete, and a few remain the same. 

5. The English language, the peculiarly Teutonic in its 
construction, has received copious additions from the Greek, 
Latin, French, and other languages of Europe. 

CONSTRUCTION AND CHANGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The introduction of Christianity, the arts and sciences, and re- 
finement, into England from Greece, Rome, and other parts of Eu- 
rope, required also the introduction of a vocabulary suited to their 
expression. 

Hence, many words used in theology, the arts, sciences, and re- 
finement, were borrowed from the Greek, Latin, French, and occa- 
sionally from the Hebrew, ItaUan and Spanish, w^hile the plain 
matter of fact was expressed in words purely Gothic. 

Example. The words ox, swine, sheep, 8^c. are native, v/hile heef, 
pork and mutton, are borrowed. So father, mother, hoy, wood, grief, 
thought, SfC. are native 5 but paternal, maternal, boyish, sylvan, dol- 
orous, diud pensive, are foreign 3 and altho fatherZ?/, mother??/, hoyish, 
woody, grieYOUs, and thoughtful, are as correct and expressive, and far 
more poetical, they are not regarded by the fastidious quite so refined 
and elegant.* 

One kind of music has been brought to a high state of perfection by 
the Italians 3 and most other nations copy largely from them. Hence, 
many Italian words are employed in musical expressions, as ^«, fortis- 
simo, messioso, largo, pianoforte. 

^Turner's Hist. Anglo-Saxon 3 and Lect. on Language, p. 75. 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

Some writers, to make a show of erudition, adopt extensively foreign 
words and expressions, the meaning of which is^ for a long time^ perhaps 
for ever, unknown to common readers. 

Literary and commercial men, and travellers, have introduced 
other words from more remote nations, which they found necessary, 
or more convenient to convey their ideas, than any word already in 
our language ; as divans sherbet^ bastinado, tattoo, souchong. 

Words of Gothic or Teutonic origin, are much more bold, strong 
and expressive, and are better suited to poetry and eloquence, than 
those borrowed from the south of Europe ; because more in keeping 
with the character, habits, and ideas of those who use them, tho 
regarded by some less chaste and refined. 

The most perfect samples of the original si^Ze of our language in com- 
mon use, may be found in the authorized version of the Bible, and in 
Shakspeare's works. But all works published previous to them, exhibit 
the peculiar structure of our language, and should be studied by those 
who would seek the true etymology of our words. 

The most ancient specimen of English poetry extant is Chaucer^s 
" Court of Love," written in 1346. The New Testament translated by 
Wiclif, in the same century, and his other writings, give a fair view of 
the condition of our language in that age. 

Our language may be considered rude and unsettled in its orthography 
and syntactical construction, till the sixteenth century, when learning 
began to take a high and independent stand in England. It was then 
shorn of many of its excrescences and received a purer, simpler, and 
more expressive style 5 which, with few changes, has continued to the 
present time. See examples at the end of Chap, III. 

By a knowledge of Latin, Greek, French and other languages, we can 
easily trace the etymology of words derived from them ; but the parent 
stock of our language — the Teutonic dialect — has not been studied as 
it ought 5 and hence the true etymology of many important words are 
unknown. 

6. The design in studying language, is to become ac- 
quainted with the best means for learning the ideas of oth- 
ers, and for expressing our own. 

7. Three things are to be observed in the study of lan- 
guage. 

1st. Things exist. 

2d. Thinking beings have ideas of things. 

3d. Langvage is employed to convey ideas to other minds. 

In the study of language as well as in every thing else, the learner 
should go back to first principleSy and look through signs to things 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

mgn-i.^ed. He will thus become acquainted with realities instead 
of shadows. 

In teaching, the tutor should labor to make his pupils comprehend 
distinctly every idea and fact represented by words. Too much 
attention can not be given to this point. 

The only course to learn language correctly is to follow from 
mgns or words to ideas, and from ideas to things. 

8. Language depends on the two fundamental principles. 

1st. On the undeviating laws of nature which operate in 
the regulation of matter and mind. 

2d. On the conventional agreement of those who use it. 

Under the first principle all languages are alike, depending on a 
common principle for their explanation. 

Under the second, languages differ, receiving slight or extensive 
modifications, according to their origin, and the condition of know- 
ledge and the customs of the people who use them. 

Previous to the dispersion from Babel and the confusion of tongues, 
** the whole earth was of one language, and one speech;" that is, 
the descendants of Noah had one language and one manner of 
speaking it. 

Since that event, different signs have been adopted in different 
countries, to express the same ideas, derived from the same things. 

FURTHER REMARKS ON THE HISTORY AND MANNER OF STUDYING THE 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The descendants of Noah, as we are informed by the sacred his> 
torian (Gen. chap. 10) and posterior to the confusion of tongues, 
scattered abroad and peopled the whole earth. The names of many 
of these decendants were given to their tribes, and the places where 
they dwelt, some of which have continued to the present day. 

A large tribe passed into the east and adopted the Sanscrit, or 
sacred language of India ; others into the north of Asia ; these 
had the language of the Massagetse. Some went to the south and 
west, and hence came the Persic, Arabic, Hebrew, and Chaldee. 
The two last spoken nearest the ancient land are, by some, consid- 
ered the purest languages. 
2* 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

Some tribes went farther still and seftled in Asia Minor, and 
from thence passed over the Hellespont and settled in Greece, or 
passed into Italy, Spain, and France (Celtee.) 

Other tribes passed farther north, over the mountains of Arme- 
nia, and settled on the north and west of the Euxinc sea, in Dacia 
and BastarnaB ; from thence they subdivided into lesser tribes, and 
spread over the whole extent of country between the Danube, Rhine? 
and Baltic. Afterwards they crossed over the Baltic and settled in 
. Scandinavia*— Norway, Sweeden, and Denmark. 

This branch of the human family bore the original name of Teu- 
tons , supposed to be derived from their great ancestor, Teut ; accord- 
ing to others, TJieut or Thuiscon, the god of the Northern Mythol- 
ogy, from v/hom the ancient Germans and Gauls believe themselves 
descended. Thuiscon and Her tha (earth) gave birth to men who 
were hence called Teutons. They were called by the Romans 
when first known to them indigence (natives.) 

From the same word comes Teutsche, Deutsche or Dutch, (still 
called in Westphalia Dusk.) Germany was also called Teutschland 
or Deutschland, 

From the same word also is derived our name for the thii*d day 
of the week, Theufs day, Tuefs-day, or Tuesday. 

From this ancient stock, sprang the numerous tribes who inhab- 
ited what is now called Germany, Prussia, Austria, Hungary, Nor- 
way, Denmark, Sweeden, Gaul or Celtse, Britain, Scotland, Ice- 
land, and Ireland. They were at first divided into three branches, 
the Istaevones, Ingsevones and Hermiones. The latter inherited the 
central part of Germany, between the Elbe and Vistula ; the Istce- 
vones emigrated to the west, probably as far as Gaul ; and the 
Ingaevones settled in the north. 

These were again divided into numerous tribes or nations ; such 
as the Suavi, Quadi, Cmibri, Franci, (who passed the Rhine and 
gave their name to Celtae or Gaul — France,) Sygambi, Catti, Sax- 
ons, Angles, Goths, Vandals, &c. 

As their language was oral, and not written, and as these tribes 
had little intercourse with each other, except in the wars and petty 
feuds which are common to barbarous and wandering people, it 
could not be expected to remain long entire. It would naturally 
branch out into various dialects, each receive new terms and idi^ 
oras, but all retain some likeness to the parent stock. 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

When these tribes became united for the purpose of self-defence, 
and consolidated into a nation, intelligent and free, a more gen- 
eral system of language was adopted from the leading dialects, 
which, however, retain to this day several of their respective char- 
acteristics, such as are marked in the High, Low, and Upper Ger- 
man. 

From the Angles and Saxons, two of these tribes, who, at the call 
of the Britons, passed into England, as has been already remarked. 
the English language was more directly derived. 

Such being the facts, ^briefly stated, the whole diiiiculty hitherto 
attending the study of cur vernacular tongue ean be easily ex- 
plained. Instead of studying and teaching it in its true character, 
in relation to its Teutonic origin, attempts have been made to ex^ 
plain it by the rules and idioms of the Greek and Latin; language* 
for which it has. as little affinity or affection as had the Goths and 
Vandals under Alaric with the Romans v/hose country they over- 
ran in the fifth century. 

The common method of studying our language was devised in 
the monasteries in the dark ages, and comports very well with the 
notions of those feudal times. The attempt was made by a dissolute 
priesthood to retain the control of learning in England, in order to 
maintain the Papal supremacy. Their system of mere scholastic 
learning, comporting with the miserable philosophy of that age, has 
come down to us as the only correct method by which to explain the 
principles or obtain a correct knowledge of our own language. 

It is even contended, and by many believed, that a complete, or 
even a tolerable knowledge of the English language can not be 
gained without a thoro acquaintance with the Greek and Latin, 
which are correctly and emphatically denominated the dead lan- 
guages. It would be analogous, and quite as consistent, to take a 
journey from New- York to Montreal and Quebec, and thence ship 
to Gibralter, South-America, New-Orleans and Pittsburg, to get 
to Philadelphia. This method is not unlike the papal notion of 
reaching heaven thro purgatory. 

Science has dawned upon the world and shed a bright luster on the 
English nation, and changes and improvements have been made in 
almost every department of human learning. But our language is 
still studied by arhitrary, false, and exceptionable rules, as a mer^ 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

/• 

" art^^^ the same that it has been since the reign of ignorance and 

error. 

It is no marvel that English Grammar is a " dry, uninteresting," 
and profitless study, when conducted on this method (as it usually 
is) by a system of arbritary signs without any knowledge of the 
things signified. 

Is our language a language ? or is it not ? If it is, it must of itself 
be a system of signs by which ideas are communicated from one to 
another, and needs not the assistance of the " dead languages'^ to 
explain it; for the English language borrowed nothing of its dis- 
tinctive character from Greek or Latin, only some of their words. 
If it is not, it is folly to attempt to explain or teach it. 

It is but a few years, time within the memory of all of us, since it 
was thought impossible to study Greek without a previous acquain- 
tance with the Latin. And altho Grammars w^ere afforded us in 
English, the meaning of all words were sacredly expressed by Latin 
definitions. But the spell has been broken, and old Schrevelius is 
laid upon the shelf, or drifted off thro the auction room. 

How long will we consent to believe and teach that there' are 
" six tenses in English," because this number *' is confessedly appli- 
cable to the learned languages ;"t when in fact, and in use, and in 
form, there can be but three distinct divisions of time ? or that there 
are " mne" parts of speech, because there are the same number in 
Latin ? 

It is believed the time has come when a radical reform in this 
matter is loudly demanded, and every philanthropist will hail with 
joy the introduction of a system of explanation, suited to the pecu- 
liar structure of our speech, based on truth, accordant with common 
sense, and, of consequence, suited to the capacity of learners. 

Whether the system here presented is such an one, is left to the 
decision of those who, having examined it on reasoning principles, 
are willing to render a '* true verdict." 

9. The study of language is properly divided into three 
branches, Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric, 

*^' English grammar is the art of speaking and writing with propriety." 

fThere were nine in Greek, and two in Hebrew, and the Royal Acad- 
emy of Spain have decided on seven future tenses. 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

10. Logic treats of the principles of thought, and the 
proper arrangement of ideas ; or, it is right reasoning. 

Children begin to learn Logic from the moment they begin to 
think, or to receive ideas from the observance of thirsts, and they 
cease learning only when the operation of thought ceases. 

There is much natural logic ; that is, the habit of thinking and the 
arrangement of ideas depend on the natural vigor and apparently 
undirected exercises of the mind. 

Logic, or right reasoning, receives an important bias from the 
instructions of childhood. The first impressions made upon the 
mind are usually lasting as life. 

The best logician (reasoner) is he who studies most closely the 
qualities, conditions, relations, and tendencies of things, as exhibit- 
ed in matter and mind. 

11. Grammar is an explanation of the principles of lan- 
guage. 

It is derived from a word which applies to the rudiments or first 
principles of literature and science in general. Hence we have a 
grammar of botany ^ a grammar of astronomy j a grammar of music ; 
surgical grammar^ &c. 

Grammar, as treated in the present work, regards the forma- 
tion, sound, meaning, and changes of words, and their proper ar. 
rangraent into sentences, so as to express ideas. 

12. Rhetoric relates to the style of composition. 

It teaches the best method of clothing ideas to give elegance and 
force, to pursuade, excite, and please the hearer or reader. 

Various words and forms of expression may be employed to con- 
vey th^^same ideas ; one may be bold and expressive ; another soft 
and beautiful ; a third familiar and easy ; a fourth cold and insipid; 
a fifth vulgar and disgusting. 

A knowledge of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric are indispensible 
in the use of language. They should be carefully studied and well 
understood by all reasonable beings. 

The study of them begins wuth the first germs of reason, the ear- 
liest observation of things by the infant mind, and matm*er years 
should ripen them to perfection. 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

All who have the care of children should teach them to observe 
and understand correctly things as they are ; they will then reason 
right — this is Logic; to express their ideas intelligibly — this is 
Grammar ; to do it in the most appropriate and expressive man- 
ner — this is Rhetoric. 

Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric, should be studied in connexion. 
They should never be separated. They are parts of the interesting 
science of human thought and speech- 

A person without speech can say nothing. A person without 
ideas has nothing to say. 

It has been the fault in studying grammar that mere forms of 
expression have been taught by arbitrary rules, instead of the essen- 
.tial principles of human speech. 

Both teacher and learner are exhorted to enter into the study of 
the following treatise in the free and full exercise of reason, and 
never adopt a sentiment or pass a remark they do not understand. 

The study of language will thus become easy, delightful, and in- 
teresting, because true and useful. 

For the convenience of teachers and learners this work is divi- 
ded into short chapters and sections. The definitions necessary to 
be committed to memory are printed on large type, with leading 
questions at the end of each chapter to correspond with them. 
Beginners should be required to learn only the numbered sections. 
On a review they may be questioned upon the explanations in small 
type. 

Advanced scholars may commence with Chapter I. It is recom- 
mended to young scholars to begin at Chapter II, and on a second 
or third review to canvass the contents of Chapter I. 

The author earnestly solicits those teachers who may introduce 
this work into their schools, for a text book, to avoid a mechanical 
and parrot-like style of learning, and endeavor to teach scholars to 
be thinkers, to carefully scrutinize not only the style of composi- 
tion, but the sentiments advanced in all the books they read. They 
will then become logicians, rather than logomachists. 

The examples and illustrations are as extensive thro out this 
work as it was proper to make them. Teachers will find no difli- 
culty in adding to them such as may be necessary to make their 
scholars comprehend the principles of the English language. 



INTROOUCTION. 19 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I. 

1. What is language? 

To what does it apply primarily ? In its common acceptation 1 

2. What does it employ ? - 
Are these sounds or signs ever varied ? 

3. Where is the English language spoken ? 
What general course does language follow ? 

Is the same language always employed in the same country ? 
What is the prospect of the extension of the English Language ? 

4. Is ours a sinnple language ?. 

What is regardad as the parent stock of our language ? 

[The teacher, on a second or third review, can question his scholars 
upon the history of our language as here stated or gathered from other 
authentic sources.] 

5. From whence has our language received additions / 

What circumstances have produced great changes in our Ian- 
guage ? 

From what nations have words been most frequently borrowed ? 

Can you give examples ? 

What of literary men and travellers ? 

What is the characteristic of Teutonic words ? 

What are the most perfect samples of ancient English style ? 

6. What is the design in studying language ? 

7. What three things are to be observed in the study of 
language ? 

Are^igns to be studied without the things signified ? 

8. On what fundamental principles does language de- 
pend ? 

How are languages considered under the first ? 
How under the second ? 

What of language previous to the dispersion from Babel ? 
What since that event ? 
[Here let the history be examined; on a third review.] 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

9. How is the study of language divided ? 

10. What is Logic ? 

Do children know any thing of logic ? 
On what does it, in a measure, depend ? 
What bias does it receive ? - 
Who is the best logician ? 

11. What is Grammar ? 
To what does the term apply ? 

What does it regard as used in this work ? 

12. What is Rhetoric ? 

What does it teach ? 

Can ideas be expressed in different ways ? 

Are these things important ? 

When does the study of them begin ? 

Should they be studied together ? 

What of a person without speech ? without ideas 1 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER II. 
GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is an explanation of the principles of lan- 
guage. 

2. English grammar is the explanation of the principles 
of the English language. 

3. Its design is to teach the form, meaning, and correct 
use of words and sentences. 

4. It is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody, 

5. Orthography teaches the sounds and use of letters, and 
the proper method of arranging them into syllables and 
words. It is right spelling. 

6. Etymology treats of words, their derivation, changes, 
meaning, and classification. 

1^ Syntax teaches the proper arrangement of words into 
sentences. 

8. Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, words, and 
sentences, and the manner of their pronunciation. It applies 
specially to poetry and elocution. 

9. Parsing is the resolution of sentences into their ele- 
ments, phrases, words, or letters, according to the principles 
of grammatical construction. 

3 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The study of language is, in one sense, like the study of anatomy 
or mechanics : the various parts are dissected to learn how the 
whple is put together. 

Words are to be observed in all their changes of form, meaning, 
and combination, that general principles may be learned, by which 
the student can be directed in the expression of his own ideas, and 
in obtaining a knowledge of others. 

It is also important to understand the ellipses which abound in 
most sentences, and to be able to supply the omissions of speakers 
or writers, that their ideas may be fully known. 

The teacher will exercise his pupils with the examples which are giv- 
en thro out this work, and will present such others as will aid the illus- 
tration of the principles laid down. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II. 

1. What is grammar ? 

2. What is English grammar ? 

3. What is its design ? 

4. How is it divided? 

5. What does Orthography teach? 

6. Of what does Etymology treat ? 

7. What does Syntax teach? 

8. To what coes Prosody relate ? 

9. What is parsing ? 

What is the study of language like ? 
How are words to bs observed ? 
What else is important ? 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 23 



CHAPTER III. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. Orthography teaches the sounds and use of letters, 
and the proper method of arranging them into syllables and 
words. 

2. Letters are intended to represent the different sounds 
of the human voice. 

Letters originally represented simple articulate sounds uniformly 
the same ; but, by accidental variations, the sounds of letters change 
according to their combinations and relations. 

B. Twenty-six letters are employed in writing the English 
language. 

The number of letters vary in different languages, from six- 
teen to two hundred and fifty-six, the present number of which the 
Sanscrit or sacred language of India is composed. But that is a 
language of syllables rather than letters. 

Many languages use different characters for letters ; others use 
the same. 

4. In the English language, the Roman characters are 
commonly employed ; but for distinction, the Italic is often 
used^and sometimes the (@[D Cngll!?!!* 

In writing, diiFerent characters are employed to represent the 
same letters. 

Printed letters are of various sizes, but generally retain similar 
forms except in fancy printing. The regular distinctions are 

r ICa, Long Primer, Brevier, Minion. I^Jonpareil, and Pearl. 

5. Letters have two forms, usually called CAPITALS, 
and small letters. 



24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

6. CAPITAL letters are placed at the commencement 
of distinct sentences, each line in poetry, proper names, 
names of the Deity, and titles of honor. They are used in 
some other cases. 

Formerly, many nouns, and afterwards, all emphatic words be- 
gan with capital letters. They are much less used than formerly. 

7. Small Roman letters are now principally employed 
in printing. 

In writing, one line drawn under a word signifies Italic, two 
lines, SMALL capitals, three lines, CAPITALS. 

8. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

9. A vowel is a perfectly simple sound which can be 
uttered by itself, and without any change in the orgaps 
of speech ; as, a, e, o. 

Short i in hit, and u in but, hut, full, are pure vowels ; but long 
i in hive, mine, and u in union, pronounced as if spelled mi-e-ne, 
hi-e-ve; y or e-union, are compound or dipthongal. 

When two vowels are sounded together they form dipthongs; as, 
ou in sound, oi in noise. Three vowels sounded together are called 
tripthongs ; as, eau in beauty, iew in view. 

10. A consonant can not be sounded without a change in 
the vocal organs and the help of a vowel ; as, Z>, g^ c, nu 

Parents and teachers can not be too particular in noting the dis- 
tinct sounds of the different letters, in a way to enable learners to 
understand them perfectly. 

The correct sounds of the letters are as necessary in the pronun- 
ciation of words, as the seven sounds in music are to the musician. 

Children should first be taught how to place the organs of speech 
to give a clear utterance to the simple or vov/el sounds ; then how 
to change them to give the mixed or consonant sounds. The com- 
binations of sounds, signified by letters, will then become easy and 
natural, and a foundation will be laid for that clear, mellow, har- 
monious uttereance so desirable in those who use language in the 
presence of others. 



ORTHOGHAPHY. 



25 



This course will also afford a sure prevention, if not a radical cure, for 
stammering, and for those habits of rapid, confused, and monotonous 
speech, so unpleasant to the refined ear. . 

This business is too much neglected by parents and teachers in the 
«arly education of children. Hence, the vast variety of discordant and 
incongruous sounds which prevail in the enunciation of the same lan- 



guage. 

It was by an early and persevering attention to this matter that gave 
Demosthenes, the prince of orators, such a moving power over the 



guage 
It v\ 

Demo J ^ 

minds of his auditors. 

11. A syllable is formed of one letter, or as many as 
can be sounded without changing the voice ; as, anx-i-e-ty, 
i-dle-ness, lan-guage. 

12. A woi'd is formed of one or more syllables, and is 
the sign or representative of an idea in the mind, and of the 
thing from which such idea is derived. 

The principles of orthography are explained in the primary school 
books, and so generally understood, that it is unnecessary to enlarge 
upon them in this place. 

It may be well, however, to bear in mind, and let children know 
the fact, that our language was not always spelled as it is at pres- 
ent ; and also that the standard of spelling is not immutably fixed. 
Hence gradual changes for the better should be encouraged and 
fearlessly adopted. 

The following examples are given that the young student may 
have some idea of the changes in the orthography and etymology of 
our language. Occasional allusions are made to these examples in 
this work. 

" It is statut and ordainit, thatt during the reine of her maist blessit 
Maiestie, ilk maiden ladye of baith high and lowe degre shalhai libertie 
to bespeake ye man she lykes, albeit, yif hee refuses to tak her til bee 
hys wyf, he schal be mulctit in yet somme off won hundrith, other less, 
as hys estait may bee, «xcepte and all ways gif he can make hitt appeare 
that he ys betroth it to ane ither woman, and the en shal he be fie J'^^ Act 
of Queen Margaret's Parliament. 

From Tyndale^s Testament, 1526. 
^' Jhon bare witnes off hym sayinge : Thys is he of whome I spake he 
that coinmeth after me was before me be cause he was yer than I.'' — 
John, chap. \ . 

" Yff eny that is amonge you lake wisdome let him axe off God (which 
geveth to all men with out endoublenes and casteth no man in the teth) 
and it shalbe geven hym." 
^' But whosoever loketh in the parfait lawe off libetie and continuetb 
3* 



26 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



there in (yf he benot a forge ttfull hearer but a doar off the worke) he 
shalbe happi in his dede.'^ James, chap. 1. 

" Be noLt earyed bidder and thydder with divers and straunge learn- 
ynge." 

<' Hitt is then nede thatt the similitueds of heavenly thyngesbe purified 
with soche thynges. Butt nowe in the ende off the v^orlde hath he apered 
once for all to put synueto fiyghtby the offerynge vppe offhym silfe/'— 
Hebrews. 

The two last passages read in 1585. 

''It was thenne necessary that the simulitude of heavenly things shoulde 
&c. But nowe in the ende of the worlde hath he appeared once to put 
a waye sinne by the sacrifice of himselfe. 

'' Yff there come eny vnto you and brynge not this learnynge hym re- 
ceave ye not to house : nether bid hym god spede. For he" that biddetb 
hym god spede is part taker of his evyll dedes. I had many thynges to 
wryte vnto you neverthelesse I wolde not wryte with paper and ynke.'' 
—2. John. 

From Wiclif^s translation. 

tlc^ai ig, g Igtil b3Dft of f0r?aSinge* Matt. v. 3i. 
% itlM faolfi^ ^^tit. or telle cut t&ingi^ &tO fco making 

of tr)e ^DClO* Matt. xiii. 35. 

He eete haye as an oxe^ and with dewe of heven his body was informid 
or defoiilid, till his heris weriden into licnesse of eglis, and his naylis 
as naylis or dees of briddis. Dan. iv. 33. 

He schal baptise or christend you, with the hooly goost and fiir, whos^ 
whynwinge clothe or fan in his hond. Matt. iii. II, 12. 

Blynde men seen, crokid men wandren, messels ben maad ciene, deef 
men heeren, deed men rysen agein, pore men ben taken to prechynge of 
the gospel, or hen maad kepers of the gospel. Matt. xi. 5, 

Gee schuln resceyve the unwelewable crown of glorie, or that schal 
never faade. 1 Pet. v. 4. 

Anoynte thin eegen with coluryo, thai is, medicinal for eegen maad of 
diverse erhis, that thou see. P..ev. iii. 18. 

' Instructions for my lorde Previsel. 

* Firste. to tell the Kinge the whole state of this realme, wt all thyng* 
appartaynyng to the same, as myche as ye knowe to be trewe. 

Seconde, to obey his commandment in all thyngs.' 

' Thyrdiy, in all things he shall aske your aduyse to declare your opin- 
ion as'becometh a faythfull conceyllour to do. ' Marye the Queue.' 

^' When I desired Origene to take the payne to come and here wytnesse 
wyth me in thys mater, he semed at the first very well content. But 
when I told hym that he sholde mete with Tyndale : he blessed hymselfe 
and shranke bakke, and sayde he had leuer go some other waye many a 
mile then onys medle with hym. For I shall tell you syr, quod he, be- 
fore thys tyme a ryght honorable man very connyng and yet more ver- 
tuouse^ the good bysshoppe of Rochester, in a great audyence brought 
me in for a wytnes against Luther and Tyndale, euen in this same mater, 
about the tyme of the burnynge of Tyndalys euyll translated testament 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

But Tyndale, as soon as he herd of my name, without any respecte of 
honestye, fell in a rage wyth me^ and all to rated me, and called me 
Starke heretyke, and the starkest that euer was. Thys tale Orygene 
told me, and swore by saynt Symkyn that he was neuer so sayed vnto of 
such a lewde felowe synnys he was fvrste borne of hys mother, and ther- 
fore he wolde neuer medle with Tyndale more. jMow, indede, to saye 
the treuth yt were not well done of Tyndale to leue resonynge and fall 
a scoldyng, chydynge, and brawlynge, as it were a bav.dy begger of 
Byllyter-lane. Fy for shame, he sholde fauored and forborne hym some- 
what, and yt had bene but for his age. For Origene is nowe'xiij. hun- 
dred yere olde or there aboute, and this was not mych aboue vij yeres 
synnys.'* — Sir. Thomas Morels Confutation, p. 104. 

' Like as the riche man that dayly gathereth riches to riches, and to 
one bag of money layeth a greate sort til it come to infinit, so me thinks, 
your Majestic not beinge suffised with many benefits and gentilnes shewea 
to me afore this time, dothe now increase them in askinge and desiring 
wher you may bid and comaunde, requiring a thinge not worthy the de- 
siringe for it selfe, but made worthy for your highness request. My 
pictur I mene, in wiche if the inward good mynde towarde your grace 
might as wel be declared as the outwarde face and countenance shal be 
seen, I wold nor haue taried the comandement but prevent it, nor haue 
bine the last to graunt but the first to ofier it." — Letter of Elizabeth to 
Queen Mary. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IIL 

1. What does Orthography teach ? 

2. What do letters represent ? 
What did they originally represent ? 

3. How many letters are employed in English ? 

Have all languages the same number ? 
Have all the same characters ? 

4. What characters are used in the English ? 

Are printed letters all of a size ? 

5. How many forms have the same letters ? 

6. How are capitals placed ? 

How formerly ? 



2^ ORTHOGRAPHY. 

7. What letters are principally employed 1 
How are different letters distinguished in writing ? 

8. How are letters divided ? 

9. What is a vowel ? 

Is i a pure vowel always ? 

When two vowels are sounded together what are they called ? 
three ? 

10. What is a consonant ? 

Is the clear pronunciation of letters important ? 

11. What is a syllable? 

12. What is a word ? 

When is orthography generally learned ? 
Was our language always spelled as it now is ? 
How was «/ spelled ? of? liberty? him? then? &c- 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

CHAPTER IV. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Etymology treats of words, their derivation, changes, 
meaning, and classification. 

2. Words should be studied in regard to their manner of 
formation, and their manner of meaning, 

IIANNEH OF FORMATION. 

3. Words, in their manner of formation, are primitive or 
derivative^ simple or compound, 

4. Primitive words are those which retain their original 
forms ; as, man, green, ra in. 

5. Derivative words are formed from primitives, by the 
addition of letters or syllables ; as, man-Zy, manli-we^^, green- 
ish, rain-i/. 

6. Compound words are formed by adding two or more 
simple ones together ; as, mRn-slayer, XBrn-water, 

In principle there is no difference between derivative and com- 
pound words. Both are formed by the addition of other words. 

The only difference is, the words added to form derivatives are 
more disguised and less understood, and their combination appears 
more easy and natural, because more common. 

Example. Ly is a contraction from like, as maii-Z?/for man-KA;e. It is 
still retained in many words^ as angel-ZiA:e, ^' warrior-ZiA:c," judas-ZiA:e. 

Some words are still correctly used in either foiTa 5 as, god^-ly, god-Zi.^e: 
lady, lady-ZiA;e. Fashion is the guiding rule in these, matters. 

Man-A;i7id , human -/ciTi^Z, friend-s/ii;?, rain-6oiu, edjcth-quake, never-the- 
less, not-vnth-standing , pen-i'na.n-ship, co-partner-s/iip, use-Zess,/b?--give- 
nesSf are as truly compound words as any others in our language 

Derivative words admit of ^?-e-fixes, as well as suf-^xes ; as, all- 
ways, cZ-[all]might.3/, fo-ward, on-ward, owf-ward, /or-ward, up- 
ward, i/j2#A-stand, a-bout, zn-laid. 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

The syllables most frequent in the formation of derivatives are 
al, ar, ant, en, ent, el, er, ed, es, est, hie, fy, full, ic, ion, ish, ite, 
iar, ive, ize, ly, or, ous, ness. 

Some derivatives in common use are formed by the addition of 
foreign words or syllables, but generally these syllables are added 
to words borrowed from the same language, tho not always ; as, 
^er-haps, per-chance. 

Other words which are regarded as simple in one language are 
often compounded in those from which they are borrowed ; as, geog- 
raphy — Greek, ge, earth, and grapho, to write ; infant, Latin in, 
not, 2Lndfans, speaking. 

MANNER OF MEANING. 

7. Words, in their manner of meaning, are applied to dif- 
ferent subjects, and are arranged into different classes ac- 
cording to their use. 

It is important that the meaning of words should be distinctly 
understood, before any attempt is made to use them in the composi- 
tion of sentences, or to explain tllfeir combinations. 

Words are the signs of ideas, and we must know what such signs 
signify before we can ascertain what other people would represent 
by them, or how we shall be understood by others. 

We could read intelligibly the language of all nations, the phonetic 
signs of India, or the hieroglyphics of Egypt, if we knew the mean- 
ing of their words or signs. 

As simple as this proposition may seem, it is a lamentable fact, 
that too many have undertaken to learn and teach our vernacular 
tongue by the manner o? formation, while the meai^ng of words 
has been greatly neglected. 

The study of language, on this plan, becomes tedious, uninterest- 
ing, and ineifectual ; and those who adopt it usually complain that 
** grammar is a dull, dry study ; altogether useless, or nearly so." 

Some languages admit of change in form to distinguish the 
meaning of words.* Our language admits of no such change. It 
can be successfully studied only by its manner of meaning ; as, she 

*See Lectures on Language^ Lee. XIII. 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

procured a pin at a pin factory, to pin her dress ; a water plant, a 
water prospect ; to water a plant, and to water a horse. The ideas 
conveyed in these examples, by the same words, are very different. 

It is necessary to know the origin and changes of words to be 
able to detect their nice distinctions in meaning. Tho we may not 
be able to do this in all cases, we should do it as far as we can. 

Words, in passing from one language to an other, or from one 
nation to another speaking the same language, or from one age to 
an other, will necessarily change materially in their manner of 
meaning as well as of formation. 

The meaning of words is to be learned by a careful observation 
of the manner of their use in the age and by the people who employ 
them to express their ideas ; and in using them ourselves, we should 
follow the best standards extant. 

Example. ^^ An ugly man" is regarded by some, a vile character j 
by others, deformed, or uncomely in person. " A clever person/"' some 
consider dexterous^ adroit, qualified 3 others^ honest, good-natured, 
obliging. 

• 8. Words are used to name things, compare them with 
each other, and express actions. 

9. They are primarily divided into three distinct classes, 
according to their manner of meaning; nouns, adjectives, 
and verbs. 

10. Nouns are names of things* ; as, man, mind, angel. 
Noun means name. It is used to designate that class of 
words which name things. 

Ideas, expressed by nouns, are formed — 
1st. Of material thingst ; as, iron, ice, air, 

2d. Of the qualities of matter ; as, the hardness of iv on, the heat 
of fire, the odor of flowers. 

3d. Of immaterial things ; as, mind, spirit, intellect, 

•^The word thing, from the old verb thincan, or thingian, to think, is here 
used in its broadest sense, as applied to every entity, being, or things 
material, or immaterial, real, or imaginary, which is the object of 
thought ; as, ma?i, mind, ghost. 

fWe do not here enter into the minute distinctions between simple 
matter and that which has been produced by change, by nature's opera- 
tions, or human skill. 



3Q ETYMOLOGY, 

4th. Of the qualities of mind; as, tcisdom, goodness^ love, 
5th. Of imaginary things ; as, ghost, fairy ^ mermaid, 
6th. Nouns are also used to express negation; as, nothing, no- 
body, nonentity, hole, end, vacuity. 

7th. Nouns likev/ise name actions; as, walk, action, connexiour 
race, beginning, learning, lightning. 

11. Adjectives are words used with nouns to define or de- 
scribe them ; as, good scholars, this book, that lesson. 

Adjectives are not primitive words in their manner of meaning. 

They are derived from noiins or verbs ; as, a paper print, printed 
paper, engraved wood, ivood engravings. 

Some words are slightly changed in their manner of formation 
in passing from nouns to adjectives ; as, storm-y seasons, wood-en 
clocks, Aureli-flTZ age, Baffin-'s bay, King-'s evil. 

Some adjectives afe derived from nouns and verbs which are ob- 
solete, or nearly so ; as, hap-^z/, from hap. *' And her hap was to 
light on a part of the field belonging to Boaz." — Ruth ii. 3. *'It 
may hap." — Shakspeare. 

Many adjectives in the English language are derived from foreign 
nouns which are not used in their simple form ; as, puerile, from 
the Latin piier, a boy ; royal, French roi, a king ; ecclesiastical, 
Greek ekklesia, a church. 

12. Yerhs express actions ; as, Cain killed Abel ; schol- 
ars recite lessons. 

Verb, from the Latin Verbum, signifies literally a word. It is 
used by way of accommodation to name that class of words which 
expresses action. 

In the construction of language, it matters not Avhether actions 
are absolute, relative, or mixed : in their character the same princi- 
ples are involved in their explanation in either case.* 

No action, as such, can exist distinct from the agent or actor ; and 
thinking beings can form no ideas of action, in fact, or in imagina. 
tion, separate from such acting agent. 



*This subject is treated at large in Lectures on Language; and 
more extensively in the chapter on Verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. 38 

Example. The pendulum of a clock is seen to vibrate or alternate 
from one side to the other, and we speak of its vibrations or alternations. 
But no idea can be formed of these vibrations except by observing the 
pendulum in that vibrating condition. 

We say " it snows/' meaning that snow falls from the clouds to the 
earth, which fact can be known only by observing the snow in that 
falling condition. But if to '^ snow" is '•' intransitive action/' hov; can 
it be known whether it snows or not 1 So with rain, run, walk, sing, stand, 
shine, and the whole list of verbs which have been called " neuter or in- 
transitive." 

Verbs, doubtless, applied originally to obvious change, or, more 
properly, to things in a changing condition, and were determined by 
the changed condition of the thing as the direct o6;ec^of the action. 

Example. ^' A painter paints a house.'' Whoever uses this language 
to express his ideas observes, in fact or in thought, that a material called 
paint, as a means, is placed upon the house to change its color. In re- 
spect to the instrumental means by which this action is performed, it 
may be said, the painter brushes it over with paint. In reference to the 
effective means, it is said, he coats it over with acoa^ of paint. In either 
case it could never be known nor said in truth, that he paints a house, 
except by observing the painter and the effects of his action. 

Verbs are also applied to actions which terminate on more latent 
objects ; as, ** Farmers raise grain ;'* *' Solomon built the temple;" 
" God governs the world." 

In these cases numerous secondary causes may intervene between 
the principal agent and the effects by which the action is deter- 
mined ; but the connexion, in fact, and in idea, is direct and insep- 
arable. 

Example. If we say '-a. merchant in Boston purchases goods of 
merchants in Canton," we only signify that he, as the prime cau^e, sets 
in operation a train of affairs which terminate as above expressed. The 
whole process, from the agent or merchant to the object or things pur- 
chased, is expressed, irrespective of the thousand intervening causes of 
ships, shrouds, sails, winds, water, seamen, compass^ &c. &c.^ v/hich 
are necessary to make the expression correct. 

When we say ''David killed Goliath," we simply signify the obvious 
fact known by the effect, without mentioning the '' smooth stone" and 
sling which were the instrumental, or the blow or wound which was the 
effective means by which his death was produced. 

God governs the world by a thousand subordinate causes, or means, 
over which he presides as the uncontroled and uncaused Cause of all 
things and actions. 

Other verbs express actions more directly confined to the actor ; 
as, the child stands ; the bird flies ; he lives. 

Example. The idea of standing was never gained from an observa- 
tion of things in an apparently motionless condition, but from seeing 

4 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

them exert strength till they had acquired the ability to stand, and retain 
their position. 

By a very easy and natural extension of this idea, the same action was 
attributed to a house, tree, and post which, by some power not neces- 
sary to be known, keep themselves in a standing posture. 

When the boy sets a stick on one end and, after some effort, succeeds 
in making it stand, he at once discovers a power at work, (no matter 
what, so far as the idea, or language is concerned,) which holds it in that 
erect position. 

" The man lives'^ by exercising the functions of animal life ; inhaling 
or inspiring air, ox inspiriting himself with air; eating food, drinking 
water, etc. But in this process, as in every other, unnumbered interme- 
diate causes operate in the production of the whole 5 the lungs, livery 
heart, teeth, stomach, arteries, veins, bones, muscles, nerves, and skin 31 
every part and portion have an office to perform in the vastly intricate 
machinery of a living man ; but the whole is expressed by the single 
statement '^ he is/^ or '^ he lives 3'' determined by a knowledge of the fact 
that he possesses life, or presents the evidences of a living man. 

Some verbs express relative or reciprocal action ; as, William 
resembles his father ; the sun goes down ; a dime equals ten cents. 

In point of fact, or grammatical construction, it matters not whether 
we say ^' the sun goes down,'' or " the earth interposes between it and 
us.'' The idea is the same in both cases, and either expression is cor- 
rect 3 for up and down, in regard to the sun and earth, are only relative 
ideas. 

13. For convenience, words are sub-divided into two 
other classes ; Pronouns, and Contractions, 

14. Pronouns are words used /or nouns, to avoid the un- 
pleasant repetition of the same word ; as, " a boy has a sis- 
ter, he loves her, and she loves Am." 

Pro signifies for. He and him in the above example are used 
/or boy; and she and her for sister. It would appear clumsy, and 
sound unpleasant, to say " a boy has a sister ; the boy loves the 
sister, and the sister loves the boy." 

These words were originally nouns, but having assumed a special 
character as substitutes for other words rather than the represen- 
tations of primitive ideas, they are arranged into a distinct class. 

15. Contractions are words so altered in their manner of 
formation that their manner of meaning is not easily ex- 
plained ; as, " He often thinks, /Aa^ notwithstanding the per- 
plexities of the subject, he shall be able to succeed tolerably 
welly at last,^^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

This division is admitted for want of suitable means to explain 
those broken, altered, contracted words and expressions which occur 
so frequently in our language ; not because they have really any 
distinctive character of their own. 

They are either nouns, adjectives, or verbs, and when their for^ 
mation and meaning are known there is no difficulty in placing 
them in their proper classes. 

Contraction, as a technical term, is prefered to any other, as 
most befitting their present condition in respect to other classes, 
tho not peculiarly appropriate of itself. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IV. 

L Of what does Etymology treat ? 

2. How should words be studied ? 

?., How are words divided in their manner of formation? 

4. What are primitive words ? 

5. Derivatives? 

6. Compounds? 

Is there any difference in principle ? 
What is the difference ? 
What does ly mean ? 
Of what do derivative words admit ? 
What syllables most frequently occur in derivatives ? 
How are some other derivatives formed ? 

Are words, regarded as simple in our language, often compounded 
in another ? 

7. How are words used in their manner of meaning ? 

Is it important to know the meaning of words ? 

Of what are words the signs ? 

Does our language always admit of change to express meaning ? 

What should be known of words ? 



3t> ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Do words ever change their meaning ? 
How is the meaning of words to be learned ? 

8. How are words used ? 

9. How are they divided ? 

10. What are nouns ? 

What does noun mean ? 

How are ideas of things formed, 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 4th ? 5th ? 6th '? 
7th? 

11. What are adjectives? 

Are adjectives primitive words in their meaning ? 

From what are they derived ? 

Are they ever changed ? 

Are the original words ever obsolete ? 

Are they ever derived from other languages ? 

12. What do verbs express ? 

Is it essential whether actions are absolute, relative, or mixed ? 
Can an action exist distinct from the actor ? 
How are actions known ? 
To what did verbs originally apply ? 
To what else are verbs Applied ? 

Do causes ever intervene between the obvious agents and the 
effects ? 

13. Into what other classes are words sub-divided 1 

14. What are Pronouns. 

What does pro signify ? 

15. What are Contractions ? 

Why is this class admitted ? 

To what classes do they strictly belong ? 



ETYMOLOGY. of 



CHAPTER V. 



NOUNS. 

1. Nouns are names of things ; as, nmn^ Boston, wisdom, 
angel, 

2. There are two kinds of nouns ; common and proper. 

3. Common nouns are the names of kinds or classes of 
things ; as, boy^ scholar, book, 

4. Proper nouns are names specially applied to distin- 
guish one thing from another of its kind ; as, Washington^ 
New-York, Hercules. 

Hercules is the name of an ancient heathen deity ; New-York, of a 
particular city ; Washington, of a man or place. 

5. Common nouns become proper, by special application; 
as, the ships " Hope^' and " Return,^^ the dog " Hero,^\ and 
race horse " JBcZip^e." 

Several words together often serve the same purpose ; as. the 
sloops ^^ DeUght-in-Peace^^ B.nd '^ Fair- Trader ;^^ the plant ^^For- 
get-me-not ;" the bird " Whip-poor-will.^^ * 

6. Proper nouns become common^^when applied to a kind 
or quajity ; as, a jiidas, a solomon, antichrist. 

Some nouns name a collection of different things under a general 
term ; as, a landscape^ a city, a county, the heavens. 

A landscape includes the idea of hills, valleys, meadows, trees, build- 
ings, rivers, etc. combined together. A city not only includes the idea 
of an area of ground^ but the houses, stores, churches, wharves, and 
other buildings. 

*" But long I will not be Jack-out-of -office. '^'^Shakspeare, 
4* 



38 



ETYMOLOGY* 



Other nouns apply to a collection of the same things ; as, an 
army, ^ flock, ^.hundred, 

7. To nouns belong person, number, gender, and position, 

PERSON. 

8. Person applies to nouns in regard to the speaker, 
hearer, or subject, 

9. There are three persons, first, second, and third. 

10. The first person is the speaker ; as, '' I Paul, my - 
self beseech you." " I John saw the holy city." 

11. The second person is the hearer ; as, " Do you hear 
me, William V " I hope, Rolert, you will think before you 
speak." 

12. The third person is the person or thing spoken of; 
as, " James studies grammar, '^'^ 

Most nouns are in the third person. More things are spoken of, than 
speak, or are spoken to. 

NUMBER. 

13. Number is the distinction of things in reference to one 
or more. 

14. There are two numbers ; singular and plural. 

15. The singular number represents one thing ; as, tree, 
pen^ book, hero. 

16. The plural number denotes two ; as, trees, pens, books^ 
heros. 

The regular method of forming the plural is to add ^ to the sin- 
gular, or when the sound requires it, es ; as, tree, trees ; box, boxe*; 
bench, benches. 

INTouns ending in y, usually form the plural by changing y into i, 
and adding es ; as cherry, cherries ; duty, duties. When preceded 
by a vowel, the plural is formed by adding s ; as, day, days ; money, 
moneys; valley, valleys; key, keys. 

Words ending in y formerly ended in ie ; as, holie, bodie^ honestte, 
happie,* and the plurals were regularly formed. The singular has been 
changed^ but the plural is retained. 

*See the examples of former spelling at the end of Chapter III, 



NOUNS. 39 

Some nouns change /into v and add es ; as, shea/, sheaves ; li/c, 
lives. But nouns ending in e/or/e, form regular plurals ; as, chief, 
chiefs ; strife, strifes. 

Some plurals are formed by adding en ; as, chick, chicken ; ox, 
oxen. By habit we now make plurals for both chick, and chicken ; 
as, chicks, chickens ; but we do not say oxens, nor children-s. Enis 
the form of the old Saxon plural. 

Other words form the plural still more irregularly ; as, man, men; 
tooth, teeth ; penny, pence, or penn/es, when applied to coin, and 
not value. 

Some foreign nouns retain their original plurals ; as, datum, data; 
radius, radii; cherub, cherubm ; seraph, seraphwi; or cherubs, 
seraphs ; but never cherubzm-s, or seraphzms. It would be much 
better to add the English plural to foreign words. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer, swine^ 
series, odds, species. 

Some nouns have no plural, in fact or idea ; as, chaos, universe, 
gold, pride, immortality. Others have no singular ; as, shears, 
tongs, embers, vitals, cattle. 

Some words are singular or plural in meaning, without change 
in form ; as, a people, many people, much people. 

The plural of some nouns do not express increase of number, but 
of qualities or sorts ; as, sugars, wines, teaSy drugs, medicines, 
paints, joys, griefs. 

Proper nouns as well as common, admit the plural number ; as, 
the Messrs. Smiths and Arnolds. 

GENDER. 

17. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

18. There are two genders, the masculine and feminine. 

19. The masculine denotes animals of the male sex ; as 
hoy, man, king. 

20. The feminine is applied to animals of the female sex : 
as, girl, woman, queen. 

Most nouns are of neither gender. They have been called neu- 
ter, that is, no gender. 

Some nouns apply alike to both genders ; as, person, scholar, 
friend, servant. 



tfl ETYMOLOGY. 

There are three forms by which genders are expressed. 

1st. By different words, as man, woman ; boy, girl ; brother, 
sister ; lord, lady ; buck, doe. 

2d. By a different termination of the same word ; as, poet, poet- 
ess ; lion, lioness; abbot, abbess, (abbotess;) hero, heroine; ad- 
ministrator, administratrix:; widower, widow. 

3. By the addition of other words ; as, 7Wfl7i-servant, maid~set- 
vant ; male child, female slaves ; lady boarders ; ewe lamb ; ^e-goat, 
«Ae-wolf. 

By a figure of personification, gender is applied to inanimate 
things ; as, *' the sun, he is the king of day ; the moon, she is the 
queen of night." But this practice depends more on fancy than 
grammatical principles. 

There is often a particular aukwardness in attaching the idea of 
gender to inanimate objects ; as, «« the ship George Washington, she 
sails well ;" *' the steam boat Ben Sherrod, she was blown up." 

Gender is not applied to animals whose sex is unknown ; as, *» it 
is a fine child ;" " he hunted the lion and killed i^" 

POSITION.. 

21. Position refers to the different relations of nouns to 
Other words. 

22. Nouns have two distinct positions in relation to ver- 
bal actions, agents and objects. 

23. Agent means actor, and applies to nouns which stand 
as the direct causes of actions ; as, Richard conquered 
Henry ; fire evaporates water ; the sun melts the snow ; 
Thomas trikes John. 

24. Object denotes the effect produced, or the thing ef- 
fected by an action ; as, Henry conquered Richard ; water 
quenches fire ; clouds obscure the sun ; John strikes 
Thomas, 

The position or case of nouns can only be known by the relations 
in which they stand to other words. 

In some languages, the position of nouns can be determined by 
their changes of form, called " declension." No such changes oc- 
cur in our language. 



NOUNS. 41 

The difference between agents and objects may be known by ask- 
ing the questions : Does it act ? or, Is it affected by an action ? 

In the examples above, it may be asked, Did Richard act ? Did 
Thomas act ? Did Henry act ? Did John act ? Or were they 
affected by an action ? 

The agent of the verb may be found by asking the question, 
Who or what thing acts ? Thus, who conquered Henry ? Who 
struck John ? What thing melts the snow ? 

The object may be known by asking, What does it do ? Thus, 
W^hom did Richard conquer ? Whom did Thomas strike ? The 
sun melts what ? 

Teachers can exercise their pupils in this manner, as they proceed 
with their lessons, and multiply examples at their pleasure. Children 
will find little difficulty in determining the person, number, gender, and 
position of nouns. The latter distinction will be better understood when 
the character of the verb is explained. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V, 

1. What are nouns? 

2. How many kinds? 

3. What are common nouns ? 

4. What are proper nouns ? 

5. How do common nouns become proper ? 

6. When do proper nouns become common ? 

7. What belong to nouns ? 

8. How does person apply to nouns 1 

9. How many persons are there ? 

10. What is the first person ? 

11. What is the second? 

12. What is the third ? 

In what person are most nouns ? 

13. What is number ? 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

14. How many numbers are there ? 

15. What is the singular number? 

16. What is the plural number? 

What is the regular method of forming the plural ? 

How do you form the plural of nouns ending in yl 

How when preceded by a vowel ? 

How did these words formerly end ? 

Nouns ending in/? in efl 

What is the plural of ox ? man ? penny ? datum ? 

Are any nouns alike in both numbers ? 

Are any nouns without plurals ? without a singular ? 

Does the plural of all nouns express increase of number ? 

Do proper nouns admit the plural number ? 

17. What is gender ? 

18. How many genders ? 

19. What does the masculine denote? 

20. What does the feminine ? ^ 

Does gender attach to most nouns ? 

How many forms of expressing gender ? 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 

Is gender ever applied to inanimate things ? 

Is gender usually applied when the sex is unknown ? 

21. What does position express? 

22. How many positions have nouns ? 

23. What does agent mean ? 

24. What does object denote ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 



CHAPTER VL 

PRONOUNS. 

1. Pronouns are words used for nouns; as, " The boy 
has a sister ; he loves her, and she loves /im." 

2. Pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and posi- 
tion. 

3. They are declined according to their changes ar^d 
use. 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 







Agent. 




Object. 


^ 1st person 




I 




me 


2d " 




thou 




thee 




^ mas. 


he 




him 


3d " gen. 


Ifem 


she 




her 


it 




it 




it 


C 1st person 




we 




us 


^2d " 




you or 


ye 


you 


f 3d " 




they 




them 



Singular, 



Plural, 



Sin^, or plu, 1st, 2d, or 3d, > , , 

° /• > who whom 

person, mas, orjem, ^ 

The third person singular is changed for gender ; as, he, she ; 
him, her. 

The gender of the first and second person is supposed to be 
known, and is not expressed. It may be either masculine or femi- 
nine. 

The plural may be in either gender without change of form. 

Who and whom, may be in either person, number, or gender ; as, 
/ who teach ; you who learn ; he who reads ; she who works ; thetf 
who hear. 

Who and whom, are always pro-nouns, that is, they are always 
used /or nouns and never with them. They are now more exten- 
sively used than formerly. 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

Thou, thee, and ye, are still used in solemn style, and in poetry 
as, " Thou art, O Lord." ** We hail thee, joyous Spring." " Ye 
are come too late." 

You is often applied, by way of respect or courtesy, to a single 
person for thou and thee ; as, *' Sister, I am come to you, believing 
you will be happy to see me again." Having a plural form, it takes 
the relation of a plural to other words. 

Our language is still deficient of a word to represent the third person 
singular^ including both genders, or either, without distinction. It would 
be very convenient to use one word to signify either ht or she, him or 
hevj without respect to gender. We are now compelled to use two 
words when one only is to be read. 

5. Some pronouns are used for nouns which are un- 
known or not named ; as, '« Who can deny it ;" " They 
say it was so ;" ''It rains ;" " It freezes." 

It often takes the lead in a sentence and stands for an idea ex> 
pressed at length ; as, " It is contended that he ought to die ; " It 
is reported to me of yon, that — ;" *' It came to pass, that he de- 
parted from us." 

Pronouns which are compounded with other words do not always 
preserve their regular declension ; as, *' He did it himself f^ " They 
are themselYes in fault." But me-self and thee-self are never used 
for myself and thyself. 

/S'eZ/ signifies soul, person, being, a conscious identity ; as, *' Bos- 
ton contains 80,000 souls, selves, or persons.''^ 

It is extensively compounded with suchother words as are used for 
the sake of emphasis ; as, '* I did it my own self;" " I Paul, myself, 
beseech you ;" " Be at peace among yourselves.'*^ Self-interest, self- 
love, self-defence, self-willed, self-abasement, self-evident, self-same, 
self-murder, self-ish-ness, are compounds in frequent use and well 
understood to relate to personal considerations. 

It was not formerly compounded with other words, but stood as 
a noun, to which the adjective, made from a pronoun, referred ; 
or was in apposition with the preceding noun or pronoun. See 
page 26. 



PRONOUNS. 45 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI. 

1. What are Pronouns ? 

2. What do they admit? 

3. How are they declined 1 

4. What is the first person singular 1 plural ? The sec- 
ond person singular ? plural ? The third person ? 

For what is the third person singular changed ? 

In what gender may the first and second persons be ? 

Does the plural change for gender ? 

In what person, number, and gender, is who and whom ? 

Are who and whom more used than formerly ? 

How is you applied to the singular number ? 

How are thou, thee and ye, sometimes used ? 

5. Are pro-nouns always used for nouns expressed ? 

How is it often used ? 
What does the noun self mean ? 

Do pronouns always assume the adjective form when compounded 
with other words. 
5 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER VIL 

ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives are words used with nouns to define or 
describe them ; as, this book ; 7ny son ; a good scholar ; 
that large ripe apple. 

Adjectives form an extensive and very important class of words. 

This class includes those words which are employed to specify or 
distinguish one thing from an other, to describe it by its qualities 
and relations compared with other things, or with itself in different 
conditions. 

A large proportion of human knowledge is relative or compara- 
tive, and is expressed by words changed from their primitive use as 
nouns or verbs. 

2. Adjectives are of four kinds, defining, describing, 
secondary/, and participial, 

3. Defining adjectives are used to distinguish one thing 
from an other of its kind, or one sort from other sorts ; as^ 
Tiis book ; a pen ; Ccesar^s funeral ; north pole ; Guinea 
hen ; Rhode-Island militia. 

Things are defined in various ways. 

1st. By personal relation ; as, my son, your daughter, whose 
book, JohrCs apple, " Peter's wife's mother," Coolers inlet, Churches 
war, my " Todd's Walkefs Johnson^ s Dictionary," Halley^s comet, 
St, Vitus* dance, *S'^. Anthony'' s fire, John^s " Putnam's Murray^ s 
Ghrammar book, simplified by ." 

This use of adjectives may include the relation of property, pos-. 
session, family connexion, discovery, or any other ; moral, social,, 
political, civil, or religious. 

Words best understood are chosen to point out things which are- 
less so, that the thing so specified may be better known ; as, *• I 
went to church." Which ? " The Episcopal church." Whichi 
Episcopal church ? Grace church, St, John^s church, Trinity ^^ 



ADJECTIVES. 47 

St. Paul's, or St. Luke's." To which Congregational church ? 
Rev. Mr. Smith''s, or Dr. Chalmers^ ? To what church ? The 
Old South, Unitarian, Baptist, Methodist, or Seaman's church. 
Which Seaman's church ? Rev. Mr. Taylor's. Which Mr. Tay. 
lor's ? Mr. John Taylor's. Where did you study law ? At the 
** Temple of Lincoln's inn." 

2d. By local relation ; as, Russia iron ; China ware ; Malaga 
grapes ; sea shells ; Roxbury russet apples ; *' land pirates ;" Can- 
ada war ; American people ; John street church. 

Should there be several churches in the same street we should 
not define them by the name of the street, but add another word 
more definite ; as, John-street Baptist, Presbyterian, or Reformed 
Dutch meeting house. We say Broadway Tabernacle, and as there 
is but one building of the name in that street it is sufficiently def- 
inite. So we may be understood when we say Broad street house, 
Hanover street house, New-Orleans house, Saratoga house, because 
these terms are specifically applied ; altho there are many other 
houses in those places. Should there be several houses bearing the 
same name, it would be necessary to define them hj an other word. 
For this purpose the keeper's name is generally used ; as, Smith's 
Elm-street hotel, Holt's Eating house. 

3d. By numeral relation or quantity ; as, one man ; a boy ; two 
bo-^ks ; first part ; second thought ; each syllable ; all truth ; no 
enur ; many minds ; both ways ; every child; some paper. 

A is derived from the same etymon as one, and always means the 
same. It may be traced thro the various languages of Europe with 
slight variations in spelling and sound, but not in meaning.* 

It is but a xQW centuries since it was written ane, afterwards, an 
and a. An is still used for the sake of euphony in some cases, in 
preference to a, but not as frequently as formerly. We now say, a 
union, not an union. A always refers to a noun in the singular 
number. 

The may refer to the singular or plural. It is not always very 
definite ; as, " the camel is a beast of burden." " The lion is a fe- 
rocious animal." The stars shine ; a star shines. " Let the sea 
roar and the fulness thereof." 

Many nouns are as definite without iAe as with it. In the Con- 

^'Greek, eis, ein ; Latin, wnw-s; ArmoriC; wnaw; Spanish and Italian, 
una; French, un. In the northern languages, German, ein; Danish, 
een, en; Dutch, cen; Swedish, en; Saxon, aen, ane, an-, English, one, 
ane, an, a. 



48 ETYMOLOGY, 

stitution of the United States it is used before Congress — " the Con- 
gress." The noun Congress is quite as definite without it. 

4. Defining adjectives answer the questions wliich or 
what thing, how much or how many ; as, what book ? This, 
that, my, his, her, your, DavicVs or Sarah^s book. How 
many books ? Each, every, two. Jive, ten, or all books. 

This and that are now commonly restricted to nouns of the sin- 
gular number ; and these and those to the plural. That formerly- 
referred to nouns in either number, the same as what and which. 

That frequently refers to the following member of the sentence ; 
as, " He wrote to me that (fact, writing) he should be here to- 
day." 

Which and that were used formerly more frequently than at pre- 
sent ; as, " Our Father which art in heaven." " It was that man 
that did it." 

Who is now extensively used as a pronoun, and hence the partic- 
ular definition by that and which is not as elegant as formerly ; as, 
*' Our Father who art in heaven." ** It was he who did it." 

What seems to have a double reference in some cases ; as, " This 
(thing) is what (thing, which thing) I wanted."* Who is some- 
times used in the same eliptical manner ; as, " Who first repeals it, 
dies." 

5. Describing adjectives describe the qualities, circuni- 
stance, or condition of things ; as, a good man; B,Jinei^ei\ch; 
a large tree ; correct language ; false teaching. 

Many adjectives define and describe at the same time, for many 
things are specified by their qualities ; as, Graham bread ; upland 
cotton ; Havana sugar. 

These words define what thing is meant, if used to distinguish 
one kind from an other ; or to describe their respective qualities, if 
compared with the qualities of others. Havana may describe the 
quality, or define the kind of sugar. 

6. Secondary adjectives are words used to increase or 



^ What can hardly be said to include the antecedent, i want something 
besides ^^xchat.^' 



ADJECTIVES. 4:^ 

diminish the definition or description of other adjectives ; as, 
a very good child ; "an exceeding high mountain ;" a gold 
headed cane ; an iron bound cask ; Hue black cloth ; a liglit 
purple dress. 

A gold headed cane is not a gold cane. Blue black cloth is not 
hlue cloth, but a black cloth of a particular shade. A light purple 
dress may not be a very light dress. 

7. Participial adjectives are words which describe nouns 
by verbal actions and admit objects after them ; as, Stephen 
is writing a letter ; a part of the tree is fallen. 

In the first example, writing describes Stephen in his present 
condition of employment and admits letter after it, as the object, or 
thing written. It is the present participle from the verb to write, 
and an adjective by use. 

In the second, 0/ describes the part in relation to the tree^ as di^ 
mded, parted, separated, (off-ed) from the tree, and this offed, part- 
ed, or separated part is fallen. It admits tree after it as the object 
from which it is parted, or off. It is a past participle, and an ad- 
jective by use. 

*' A man is well o#'," when he is parted, separated, or distant from 
poverty, sickness, and misfortune. The ship is o^the coast. It is 
in the offings. ^^ He of England bore the palm." "We also are 
his o^-spring," because we sprang from him. " The o^-scouring of 
all things," (I. Cor, 4 : 13,) are, by metonymy, those persons who 
were separated, parted, scoured-off, or distinguished from the rest, 
on account of badness of character, real or supposed. 

The imperative verb of this adjective is still used : as, " Off, off^ 
and away." 

" Off, I say : hearest thou not, Intruder ?" 

He will be off in an hour. He will be gone in an hour. He is a 
mile off. A lady set off a branch of her geranium, and gave the off- 
set to a friend. 

Some words are, from habit, rarely used except to describe things 
"O/was formerly always spelled off. See page 25, 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

by their relations to other things ; as, The boy is over the fence, 
in the orchard, wwi^er the trees, among the apples, with a basket. 

Many other words occasionally assume the same character and 
describe by relation in the same way ; as. He is over the river, op- 
posite the church, in the road, near the house, across the garden. 
He went aboard the ship, athwart the deck, underneath the hatches, 
aloft the main sail, or along side the gunwale. 

All adjectives are nouns or the participles of verbs, primarily, 
but are made adjectives by use. 

Participial adjectives include those words which retain some of 
their verbal character, either present or past- 
There is considerable difference between those adjectives which 
describe by present action, and relation produced by former action, 
or action completed. But learners can easily distinguish the dif- 
ference. 

The participial for7n is often omitted in adjectives of frequent 
use ; as. 

*• He is regenerate (ed) and pure." 

'* Let me know again 
A touch of natural grief, or I shall go 
Distract r (ed) and think the bloody form is here." 

" As glittering clouds before the sun-light face 

Of unapplianced virtue.*' — Talfourd*s Athenian Captive. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

7. Some adjectives admit of change in form to express 
comparison in different degrees ; as, reddish, red, redder, 
reddest ; great, greater, greditest, 

8. There are three regular degrees of comparison, the 
positive, comparative, and superlative, 

9. The positive expresses simple quahty or condition ; 
as, red, clear, lovely. 

10. The comparative increases or diminishes the posi- 
tive ; as, red'der, clear-er, loveH-er. 

11. The superlative extends the comparison to the high- 
est or lowest degree ; as, red-dest, clear-e^^ loveli-e6*^ 



ADJECTIVES. 51 

The syllable isk expresses a slight resemblance, or a comparison 
less than the positive ; as, gvej.ish, sheep-zsA, hoy-ish^ hook-ish. 

The regular change in the formation of the word is to add to the 
positive er for the comparative, and est for the superlative. 

In some adjectives the comparisons are expressed by different 
words ; as, 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative 


Good or well, 


better, 


best. 


Bad or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Little or small, 


less, 


least. 


Much or many, 


more, 


most. 



The words which are used most frequently to express the com- 
parative and superlative degrees, are the most irregularly formed, 
being in some cases derived from different words ; as, goody better^ 
best ; bad, worse, worst. 

Best is probably contracted from better-est, the positive of which 
is obsolete as an adjective ; tho the verb bet is still in use, from which 
it was evidently derived. In a case of uncertainty, a man makes 
a bet with another upon the issue. If it turns out positive as he 
lays it, he wins ; if not, he loses. Good and well are positive, 
but having no comparative, other words are selected ; as, good, 
better, best. 

The same irregularity is observed in most other languages. 

1 2. The regular degrees of comparison may be increased 
or diminished to almost any extent, by the aid of secondary 
adjectives ;^ as, a white ^ a clear white, a dead white, a pure 
white, a snow white, a very white ; a whiter, inucli whiter, 
some whiter, a little whiter, considerable whiter ; the whitest, 
much the whitest, hy far the whitest, the very whitest." 
These are terms often used and well understood. 

EXAMPLES, 

A {very dark grass greeii) dress. A bright red gros de Swiss silk shawl. 

A ( ) green dress. A '^ red ^' ^' silk shawl. 

A grass '• dress. A dark red shawl. 

A dark '^ " dress. A very dark red raw silk shawl. 

A very '^ '-' '^ dress. A very light coal red raw silk shawl. 

We also hear of pea, orange, olive, leek, verdigris, emerald, sea, bottle, 
sjid invisible (!) green^ with all the vast variety of distiuction, of dark, 
light, and medium. 



52 ETYBIOLOGY. 

LowelUbuitt machinery. Keene cylinder window glass factory. Rus- 
sia iron stove pipe. Fresh Smyrna best box raisins. Warranted best 
silver steel pen knives. Nice white Irish linen fine figured table cloths. 
An old fashioned ^' neuter verb'^ grammar book. The most fashionable 
New- York made German napped beaver hats. 

13. Many participial adjectives admit of comparison ; as. 



Positive. 


Comparative, 


Superlative. 


in, 


inner, 


in-ner-mo^, in-most. 


out, 


out-6r, utter. 


outermost, utmost. 


up, 


upper, 


uppermo^^, upmost. 


near, 


nearer. 


nearest. 


be-hind, 


hinder, 


hindmost. 



They also admit the minor degrees, by the aid of the secondary 
adjectives ; as, *'/flr beyond Jordan ;" very near the river ; far up 
the hill ; much after the hour ; far from me ; twice round the hill ; 
deep in the water ; farther on our way. He is after the game ; 
he is close after the game. " Or of the Tapyrs farther on in Me- 
dia." Clark's Com. on Gen. 10 : 26. 

They are also extensively compounded with other words to which 
they directly refer, as describing adjectives ; as, a6oi5e-board, after- 
part, before-hcLud, 6^.path, down-fsll, m-step, liJce-minded, ojf-sprmg, 
ow^ward, fo-ward, out-goings, 2w-comings, Mjp-risings, down-sittings^ 
ot?er-work, out-CRst, round-house, up-l^nd, with-all. 

Like all compounds they were formerly distinct words, regularly 
used as adjectives ; but, by the frequency of their use, they have 
been joined to other words some times with slight modifications in 
their spelling. 

Many of these adjectives occur as nouns and verbs as well as ad- 
jectives ; as, Farmers employ withy twigs, twisted into icithes, 
to withe together posts in the fence, so that one post may stand 
with (withe^Z) the other.*'* 

They are still frequently used in conversation, as verbs in the im- 

*Me thou shalt use in what thou wilt, and doe that withe a tender 
twist, that none can doe with a tough ivithe.—Eiiphes and his England, 
p. 136. 

They had arms under the stern in the boats, and had cut the withes. 
-^Ludlovy s Mem. p. 435. 

The only furniture belonging to the houses^ appears to be an oblong 
vessel made of bark, by tying up the ends with a ityithe. — Cook's Bat. 
Bay. See also Webster^s Dictionary. 



ADTECTIVES. 53 

perative mood, and often occur in elegant writing. " And Lot said, 
^> g^t you out of this place." " Up, make us gods." — Bible. 
*' Out, OM^ upon the assembling host." " Ow, on my braves! the 
day is ours. 'T is nobly won." 

14. In the comparison of things, adjectives are to be un- 
derstood according to their application to the things com- 
pared ; as, a great pin, a great log, a great house, a great 
city, a great continent, a g7'eat world ; a good boy, a good 
scholar, ^ good soldier, a good butcher, 3, good christian. In 
this respect, the smallest mountain is iiicomparally larger 
than the largest pin ; and the Almighty is infinitely mightier 
than the mightiest man, and superlatively letter than the best 
of mortal beings. These apples are not very good, but they 
are the lest I have. 

There is an extensive and growing error in the use of the adjec- 
tives good and many. It is not correct to say " a good many ap- 
ples," tho we may say " many good apples ;" for, omitting the ad- 
jective good, we can not say "a many apples." Neither is it cor- 
rect to say " a great many persons ;" for, " a great persons," or " a 
many persons," would be improper. It would be better to say, many 
apples ; many persons, and omit the good and great. We do not 
hearof"a5a6? many,^^ ov ^^ a, small many." Why then say "a 
good or great many ?" " The rushing of 77iany waters ;" " the influ- 
ence of many minds," are much more expressive than to add the 
words great and good. 

15. Many words, which are adjectives in form, are used 
as nouns ; as, the living and the dead, wise and foolish, high 
and low, rich and poor, just and unjust, the benevolent, the 
learned, the re^t Someof them admit of plurals ; as, one. 
one5 ; other, others ; quarter, quartern ; regular, regular* ; 
superior, superior* ; better, better* ; quarto, quarto*. But 
many of them take the relation of plurals ; as, the wise say; 
the good are. 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

Some arc adopted as proper nouns ; as, the Almighty, Merciful, 
VVonderful, the Just, the Unknown. 

This use of the adjective form, originated from the habit of omit- 
ting the noun whenever it was necessarily understood ; as, The 
wise (men) inform us ; the good (people) are often ; the Al- 
mighty and Eternal (God) ; "The last ( ) shall he first, and the 
first ( ) last." 

16. The termination of some adjectives change when the 
noun to which they refer is not expressed ; as, this book is 
jnine, that is yours ; hers is lost, theirs are found ; " gold and 
silver have I none,^^ 

Some adjectives derived from pronouns, retain their original form; 
but, in such cases, are frequently compounded by habit with the 
3ioiin to which they refer ; as, ?Aem-selves, ^zTTj-self, for f^eir-self, 
and ^i^.self. 



QUESTIONS OF CHAPTER VIL 

1. What are Adjectives ? 

Is it an important class ? 

What does it include ? 

Hov/ is an extensive portion of human knowledge gained ? 

2. How many kinds of adjectives ? 

3. What are defining adjectives ? 

How are things defined first ? 

What may this relation include ? 

What words are chosen to define ? 

What is the second method of defining things ? third method' 

4. What questions do defining adjectives answer ? 

To what does that frequently refer ? 

Are that and which used as often as formerly ? 

What reference has what? 



ADJECTIVES. 55 

5. What are describing adjectives ? 

Do any adjectives define and describe at the same time ? 

6. What are secondary adjectives ? 

7. What are participial adjectives ? 

What does of or off mean ? Is it ever used as a verb ? 

How are some words generally used ? 

Do any others occasionally assume a similar character ? 

What are adjectives primarily ? 

What do participial adjectives include ? 

7. Of what change do adjectives admit ? 

8. How many regular degrees are there ? 

9. What does the positive express ? 

10. What does the comparative mean ? 

11. What does the superlative signify 7 

What does ish express ? 

What are the regular changes in form to express its degrees ? 

What is the comparative of good ? superlative ? 

12. How can the degrees of comparison be increased ? 

13. Do participial adjectives admit of comparison ? 

Do they admit of minor degrees ? 

Are they ever compounded ? 

Do these words ever occur as nouns or verbs ? 

Are they ever used in conversation, or writing ? 

14. How are adjectives to be understood in comparisons? 
Are good and many ever used erroneously ? 

15. Are adjectives ever used as nom^ ? 

Do such admit of plurals ? 

Are they used for proper nouns ? 

How did this use of adjectives origuiate ? 

16. Do the terminations of adjectives ever change ? 
Do pronouns ever become adjectives ? 



56 ETYMOLOGY, 



CHAPTER VIII. 

VERBS. 

1. Verbs express actions ; as, scholars learn grammar ; 
the boy warms himself by the fire ; he resembles his fa^ 
ther. 

Verbs express actions in a variety of ways, but it is impossible to 
draw any distinct lines of demarcation between them. 

They evidently applied originally to direct perceivable motion, 
and were known by the change or effect produced in the agent or 
acting thing in relation to other things. 

Things were seen to move, to assume new relations and tenden- 
cies, and in moving to produce definite effects ; and words were 
adopted to signify such change. 

These words were primarily very similar to the names of the 
things which stood as the direct or obvious cause of the action ; as, 
printers print prints ; builders build buildings, in the process of 
which, they plow, hoe, spade, or shovel the ground ; stone the eel- 
lar ; frame, timber, brace, and pin the frame ; board, shingle, slate 
or tile, spike, and nail the roof; lath, plaster, stucco, whitewash, 
paint, or paper the rooms ; carpet, mat, or sand the floor ; fence, 
wall, manure, and plant the yard. 

It is curious to notice the close resemblance between the pronuncia- 
tion of words when applied to sound; and the sound they are intended 
to represent 5 as, lions roar, the waters dash, oxen low, owls hoot, hens 
cluck or cackle, lambs bleat, the wind whistles, cats mew and purr, hunters 
halloo, streams gurgle, doves coo, geese and serpents hiss. 

Such resemblance is not accidental. It is in accordance with natural 
principles, and may be traced thro most languages, ancient and modern j 
but is more distinctly seen in the rudest languages, because the refining 
polish has not obscured their primitive character. 



VERBS. 



57 



2. Three things are to be observed in the study of verbs. 

1st. The agent, actor, the moving or obvious cause 
of the action. 

2d. The motion, change, or aciing, denoted by the 
verb. 

3d. The object, effect, or thing affected by the action. 

'* Solomon built the temple." 
Solomon was the agent or moving cause. He did something, or 
caused something to be done, with out which it could not have been 

said he built the temple. 

Built expresses the action, the movement, or change, and in- 
cludes all the operative means from the beginning to the end. 

Temple is the object, thing produced, or consequence resulting 
from the action of building. 

REMARKS ON ACTIONS AS REPRESENTED BY VERBS. 

Every verb must have an agent and object either expressed or 
necessarily understood ; because it is a prime law of nature, from 
which there can be no deviation, and by which all human know- 
ledge must be regulated, that — 

1st. Every effect must have a cause to produce it. 

2d. Every cause must have an effect resulting from it. 

3d. Like causes will produce like effects. 

4th. Every thing thro out universal nature, acts, at every moment 
of existence, according to the ability given it. 

5th. The ideas of thinking beings must correspond wiih facts as 
they exist, and become known. 

6th. The language which represents such ideas must correspond 
with the facts themselves. 

From these principles there can be no deviation, in fact, in 
^ thought, or in practice. We may long remain ignorant of the 
sublime principles which operate thro all creation ; but as fast as 
these truths become known, and make distinct impressions on the 
mind, these impressions (ideas) may be represented by signs (words) 
to other minds. 

The knowledge or ignorance of facts or principles can not aifect 
the facts themselves. Truth is eternal ; and it is the business of 
6 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

science to reveal its mysteries, and exhibit its importance in all the 
properties, relations, and tendencies of matter and mind. 

The present system of astronomy was long hid from the world, 
but the facts were the same ; they being unknown could not be ex- 
pressed ; but when the motions of the earth and planets were dis- 
covered, a new field of thought was laid open, new ideas were 
gained, and language admitted the necessaay change. 

Science has explained the secret springs of action and developed 
to the human understanding the rich mines which were long ob- 
scured to mortal vision. The means for communicating these dis- 
coveries have been ample ; for language has kept pace with improve- 
ment. The only difficulty has been that the system of explanation 
by arbitrary rules, has given only a superficial knowledge to the 
learner, and has failed to reveal to his mind the great principles 
upon which language is dependant. The study has been too me- 
chanical. Too much time has been squandered in learning how to 
express, by rule, what has not been known in fact. 

" The tall archangel adores and burns" before the throne of the 
great Original Cause of all things, and the smallest atom retains 
its position, and occupies its place, till removed by some superior 
force. 

The trees put on their summer dress, and disrobe themselves in au- 
tumn. They grow, oy shoot forth branches, spread out their leaves 
and offer a cooling shade beneath which the weary traveller may 
refresh himself. 

The small portion of arsenic possesses a deadly power ^ and per- 
forms fatal actions. It destroys human life, by imparting its deadly 
properties. The drop of prussic acid takes away life. 

The magnetic needle in the mariner's compass, tho composed of 
dead matter, possesses the astonishing power of preserving its self- 
control amid the fury of the elements. It steadily points to the 
north pole, and directs the course of the vessel thro the rayless night 
and sunless day, to its destined haven. What vondrous principle 
is that which the needles possesses, to do what man with all his 
wisdom can never accomplish with out its aid ? 

The book lays upon the desk, and the desk supports, sustains, up. 
holds the book. What action does that desk perform to sustain the 
book, more than the book performs in pressing on the desk ? Is it 



VERBS. 59 

not reciprocal, equal action ? Does not the desk barely resist the 
action of the book ? Think a moment, and then decide. 

It is a principle in mechanics, that " to every action there is al- 
ways opposed an equal reaction ; or the mutual actions of two 
bodies on each other are equal and in opposite directions. If you 
press your finger on a stone, the finger is equally pressed by the 
stone. A horse drawing a load is drawn backward by its whole 
weight. A magnet and a piece of iron attract each other equally ; 
and if, when in the sphere of mutual attraction, one is fixed and 
the other free, which ever is free w^ill be drav/n to the other." 

Who, in these days of science and improvement, will condescend 
to believe and teach the doctrine of ^^neutev or intransitive''' actions, 
this relic of barbarous ages, wiiich was long since exploded, and is 
banished from gygyj thmg but our grammar books ? There it is 
almost sacredly retained ; but, like the astrology of Egypt, limited 
to a single column on the leaf of an almanac, it is not generally 
understood, because it is not explained ; and it can not be explained 
because it is not true. 

There is not on record an instance of but one " intransitive verb,'' 
and that was by a miraculous power, whereby nature's laws were 
suspended, in the case of the " burning bush ;" for the bush burned 
but nothing was burned, no direct jeffect was produced on the bush. 

Let children be taught to observe the meaning of words, to study 
their uses in the expression of ideas, and we shall no longer hear the 
bitter lamentations of the dry, uninteresting, profitless study of the 
grammar of our own language. 

The common system of grammatical explanation is a relic of the 
peripatetic philosophy, which admits o^ causes wdth out effects^ verbs 
with out objects, and agents without actions. 

It teaches that there is a class of words vx^hich •' express nei- 
ther action nor passion, but being or a state of being :" and another 
class which limits the effect of all action to the agent. 

Like every system which lacks the important quality of truth, 
it abounds with contradictions, exceptions, and inconsistencies, 
which only serve to perplex and mislead the learner, and give him 
a disrelish for all philological investigations. 

The same words which are said to express neutrality, or " intran- 
sitive action" often occur with the consequences or effects of such 
actions distinctly expressed with out the least possible chance for 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

any change of increase or diminution in the action expressed by the 
verb ; and every teacher is compelled to give them an other name 
tho their character is unchanged. 

The model words of the books will serve for illustration. *' Cse. 
eer walked a mile." He had a long walk. How ? He walked it. 
Could he walk without it ? Can a man walk without producing a 
ivalk 7 It is no matter whether it is expressed or not ; the idea is 
the same. But is the real character of the verb changed whether 
we say, " Caeser walked^ v-alked a walk^ or walked himself to 
death V 

*' / sleep.'''* " They shall sleep a perpetual sleep and shall not 
awake." " To sleep the sleep of death." *' And sleep dull cares 
away." *' Many persons sleep themselves into a kind of unnatural 
stupidity." Sleep is the direct effect of sleeping, and no person can 
sleep without producing it; nor does a person often sleep any thing 
else. Such being the fact, it is unnecessary to express the object 
which is so easily and necessarily understood. 

" Thou wilt not sleep ?" 
Thoas. *' I wish no sleep 

To reach these eyes, till the last sleep of all." — Talfourd. 

"I sit." Bring a child and set it beside me. Can it sit? It 
falls ( ) to the floor and is injured. Why did it fall ? It was 
uiidhle to keep itself evect ; it could not re^am its sitting position. 

*' i sat rne down and wept." 

'^ He sat him down by the pillar's base, 

And drew his hand athwart his face.'' — Byron. 

'' Then having shown his wounds, he 'd sit him down, 

And, all the livelong day, discourseof war."— TV^a^. of Douglass. 

^' But wherefore sits she there ? 
Death on my state ! This act convinces me/' — King Lear. - 

" Sitting, the act of resting on a seat. 

Session, the act of sitting.^' — Johnson's Dictionary. 

'- Then went Boaz up to the gate, and sat him down there."- — Ruth. 

To BE. *' He will he in Boston to-morrow." A man in Balti- 
more says " I can he in Boston in thirty hours." What verb ex- 
presses the action ? Be here in ten minutes. *' You are commanded 
to BE and appear before the Court of Common Pleas to answer :" 



VERBS. 61 

ii,nd a heavy fine is inflicted for not being there ; or, on the old sys- 
tem of grammar, for not doing that which is doing nothing at all !* 

But these are mere verbal criticisms. Let us examine principles. 

The existence of actions expressed hy verbs, are known by the 
effects produced by such actions, and can be determined in no other 
way ; as, the bird sings ( ;) the eagle flies ( ;) the girls play ( ;) 
the sun shines ( ;) the lightening flashes ( ;) it snows ( ;) it 
rains ( .) 

If the bird sings nothing, makes no sound, who can know 
whether it sings or not ? If the^z^y^^ (/) of the eagle produces no 
change, no effect, no object, how shall it be known whether it flies 
or stands still ? If the girls play no plays, who can tell whether 
they play at all ? If there is no flash (.') produced by the flashes (.') 
of lightening, who shall distinguish it from total darkness ? If the 
sun shines no *' sheen," or sun-shine, who can distinguish noon-day 
from midnight ? If it snows ( ) without an object, without any 
snow snowed, or fallen, who shall be called upon to clear away the 
snow which blocks up the school house door where " neuter or m- 
transitive^^ verbs are taught 1 If it rains ( ) intransitively, who 
shall ever spread an umbrella to shelter themselves from the rain ? 

The student perceives that it is impossible to form an idea of ac- 
tions except by observing the effects resulting from them, which 
eff^ects have been denied an existence by the dogmas of the school- 
men, which have been handed down from the dark ages with little 
change, in the system of grammatical explanations. 

Take the follov^ring illustration of this principle. Let a brick be 
heated to a red heat ; then place it on a cold one : examine them af- 
ter ten minutes, and it will be found that one has grown hot and 
the other cold, — one imparted heat and received cold ; the other 
imparted cold and received heat. But for the effects how could it 
ever be known whether any action had taken place ? 

Again, if verbs do not imply action, they can never be used in 
the imperative mood, nor form a past participle ; for why should 
one person direct an other to do that which is doing nothing at all ; 
as, be here ; be there ; sit along ; stand away ; Lay it down ; run 

*This word, and neuter and intransitive verbs are considered at length 
in " Lectures on Language/' to which the reader is referred. 

6* 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

" along ; " sleep on now and take your rest V Why should a thing- 
be said to be in a changed condition, or new circumstance, produced 
by some prior action which could produce no effects. A learned 
man is one on whom learnm^ has made some impression ; the said 
boy is the boy which has heen said before. 

All verbs admit the imperative mood and past participle, except 
a few which are obsolete in some of the moods and tenses. 

As singular as it may appear, and humbling as the fact may be, 
the great, and good, and learned, (men,) seem to have mistaken al- 
together the essential principles concerned in the explanation of all 
verbs, and, forgetting their true character, have attempted to dis. 
tinguish between them merely on account of the objects which come 
after them ; and this mistake, like most others, has been the pro= 
iific source of much mischief, and lead to some singular conclusions; 
which, was it not for their antiquity and high authority, would be 
regarded as ridiculous in the extreme. 

For example. To eat and drinJc, are called " v. ?2." or " v. iy 
verbs neuter, or intransitive^ by Webster, Walker, Johnson, Mur- 
ray and all the *' simplifiers ;" and are defined, " to taTie food ; to 
feed ; to take a meal ; to go to meals ;" " to swallow liquors ; to 
quench thirst; to take any liquid ;" while to resemble and to equals 
are called " •». if." transitive verbs : as tho a person could eat and 
drink, *' confining the action to the agent," not eat or drink any 
thing ; and yet hy resembling another in appearance, and equalling 
him in size, he acted transitively, and his actions passed over to an 
other object ! Did these men practise on the principles they taught ? 
Did they ever eat and drink intransitively ? If they did not, is it 
probable any body else ever did ? And if such a thing can never 
be, why teach children that eat and drink are intransitive, merely 
because the things eaten or drunk do not happen to be expressed, be- 
ing readily understood ? 

But these same great and learned men tell us, very sagely to be 
sure, that to act, *' to be in action; not to rest, to be in motion, to 
move," is " v. n." verb neuter, signifying ?zo action; or, " v. z." pro- 
ducing no effects ; while at the same time, they contend that a neu. 
ter verb, the tamest thing in all the world, " expresses a state of 
being;"(!) performs a direct transitive action ! Is it any longer a 
cause of wonder that the study of grammar has been perplexing. 
" dry and uninteresting ?" 



VERBS. 63 

So far as the action is concerned, it makes no difference whether 
the object of the action is expressed or not ; but it always is ex- 
pressed when there is much danger that a wrong- one will be sup- 
plied ; as, " The preceptor teaches (school^ to learn others, and stud- 
ies (books) to learn himself." " The believer in neuter verbs under- 
took (the task) to run (his opponent) into an absurdity, but unfor- 
Innately ran {himself ) into one." 

Any teacher or pupil may test by actual experiment, the most 
conclusive of all arguments, tiie truth or falsehood of intransitive 
verbs. Let him remove the covering from his feet, and " step ( ) 
on a red hot iron." if step is intransitive, as every grammar book 
in use, if not every teacher, will tell us ; why, then his foot will not 
be harmed. If it is not, the thing stepped will bear some evidence 
of the facts in the case. Let the trial be made. 

The reader is requested to examine carefully the following ex- 
amples, and compare them with the pKnciples here laid down and 
the existing systems of grammar, and judge for himself whether it 
is correct and expedient to teach *' intransitive" verbs. He will 
also observe how an ellipsis is employed where the idea can not be 
mistaken. 

•' Ask ( ) and ye shall ;'eceive ( ) ; seek ( ) and ye shall find 
( ) ; knock ( ) and it shall be opened unto you." Ask what ? 
Seek what ? Knock what 7 That it may be opened ? 

*' He spoke ( ), and it was done ; he commanded ( ), and it 
stood fast." 

»* Bless ( ), and curse ( ) not." — Bible 

" Strike ( ) while the iron is hot." — Proverb. 

" I came ( ), I saw ( ), I conquered ( )." — Ccesar^s Letter. 

He lives ( ) contented and happy. 

*' The life that I now live, in the flesh, I live by the faith of the 
son of God," — Paul. 

*' Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end he 
like his." — Numbers. 

As bodily exercise particularly strengthens ( ), as it invites ( ) 
to sleep ( ), and secures ( ) against disorders, it is to be generally 
encouraged. Gymnastic exercises may be established for all ages 
and for all classes. The Jev7s were ordered to take a walk out of 
the city on the Sabbath day ; and here rich and poor, young and 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

old, master and slave, met ( ) and indulged ( ) in innocent mirth 
or in the pleasures of friendly intercourse. — Spurzheim on Edu. 
cation. 

"Men will wrangle ( ) for religion; write ( ) for it; fight 
( ) for it ; die ( ) for it ; any thing but live ( ) for it." — Lacon. 

I have addressed this volume to those that think ( ), and some 
may accuse me of an ostentatious independence, in presumimg ( ) 
to inscribe a book to so small a minority. But a volume addressed 
to those that think ( ) is in fact addressed to all the world ; for 
altho the proportion of those who do { ) think ( ) be extremely 
small, yet every individual flatters himself that he is one of the 
number ." — Idem, 

What is the difference whether a man thinks or not, if he pro- 
duces no thoughts ? 

" He that thinks himself the happiest man, really is so ; but he 
that thinks himself the wisest, is generally the greatest fool." — 
Idem. 

" A man has many workmen employed ; some to plow ( ) 
and sow ( ), others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) 
and reap ( ) ; one to score ( ) and hew ( ) ; two to frame ( ) 
and raise ( ). In his factory he has persons to card ( ), spin 
( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and weave ( ), and a clerk to 
deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and pay ( ). They 
eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day ; and as they 
work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, 
sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly ; they rise ( ) up 
early to go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children 
wash ( ) and dress ( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to 
learn ( ) to read ( ), write ( ), and cipher ( )." 

It should be observed that the character of agents and objects, in 
reference to the direct causes, or obvious agents, and the objects, or 
effects of the actions, are to be regarded according to their associa- 
tion, or the manner of their use. Let the following examples be 
carefully considered. 

The lady waters her flowers with water. 

The boy waters the horse at the brook. 

The water moistens the ground and makes the plants grow. 

The miser hoards his money, dies, and leaves it to others. 



VRBES, 65 

Mr. Experiment hums coal in preference to wood. 

His new grate burns coal finely. 

The coal hums beautifully, and makes a clear fire. 

The fire hums the coal very fast. 

The servant hums more coal than is necessary. 

The preceptor teaches a school in London. 

He teaches grammar and philosophy. 

He teaches his scholars grammar and philosophy. 

Wisdom makes the man. 

A man makes his fortune and his character. 

Sin makes a maji miserable. 

Windoics admit the light and exclude the cold. 

The light shines thro the window glass. 

"The sun's blest heams turn vinegar more sour." 

Acids and alkalies combine and neutralize each other. 

These examples and illustrations, if maturely considered, will 
enable the learner to form tolerably correct notions of the character 
of agents, actions, and objects, which are indispensible in every 
complete sentence, because they always exist in connexion, in fact 
and in thought. 

The limits of the present work forbids any further remarks on 
this highly important subject. The philosophical student will find 
these brief hints sufficient. Those who wish to see it treated more 
at length, are referred to " Lectures on Language." 

3. Verbs are of two kinds, regular and irregular. 

4. Regular verbs form their past tense and past partici- 
ple by adding d or ed to the present; as, rule, vul-edi 
learn, learn -e^. 

5. Irregular verbs* form their past tenses and past par- 
ticiple, in different ways. 



^There are about two hundred and fifty irregular verbs in our language. 
The number is constantly diminishing. 



66 



ETYMOLOGY. 



1st. By the same word ; as, 

Present. Past. 

beat beat 

cut cut 

let let 

set set 

2d. By changing the pronunciation ; as, 

read read 

3d. By changing d to t ; as, 

lend lent 

send sent 

wend went 



Participle. 
beat 
cut 
let 
set 



read 



lent 
sent 
went 



4ih. By changing the form of the word ; as, 

breed bred bred 

cling clung clung 

grind ground ground 

have had had 

think thought thought 

weep wept wept 

5th. By changing the form for the past tense and for the past 
participle ; as, 

blow blew blown 

rise rose risen* 

w^rite wrote written 

see saw seen 

6th. By changing the form of the past tense only ; as, 



come came 




come 


run ran 




run 


7th. By substituting different words ; 


as, 




am was 




been 


go (wend) went 




gone 



^En is the regular Saxon termination for the past tense. 



VRBES. 67 

6. Many verbs are either regular or irregular ; as, 



work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought, 


hang 


hanged, hung 


hanged, hung 


learn 


learned, learnt, 


learned, learnt 


sow 


sew, sowed 


sown, sewed 


cleave 


clave, clove, cleaved 


clefl, cloven, cleaved 


will 


would, willed 


willed. 



7. Verbs admit the relations of mood, tense, person, and 
numher, 

MOODS. 

8. Mood expresses the manner of actions in reference to 
personal agents. 

Mood, mode, mind, and manner, were formerly nearly synony- 
mous words. They have a likeness in meaning as now used. *' He 
is in an unhappy mood," mind, manner, or condition. 

9. There are three moods, indicative, imperative, and infi- 
itive, 

10. The indicative mood indicates or declares an ac- 
tion, and has a direct personal relation to an agent ; as^ " I 
love you ; you loved him." 

The agent of the verb may be a single thing, a combination of 
things, or an idea stated at large ; as, " To read improper books, to 
use bad language, and to visit vile company, indicates a want of mo- 
ral principle, smd foretells a state of deep degradation." " To err 
is human, to forgive (is) divine." " Studymg without improvement 
avails nothing." 

11. The imperative mood denotes the mind of the first 
person addressed to the agency of the second, directing him 
to do or not do an action ; as, " Study your books." " Save, 
Lord, or I perish." 

The form of the verb in this mood is not varied for number or 
person, and the agent is not often expressed ; as, " Come, let us 
worship." " Give us this day." The officer commands one soldier 
or a hundred, by saying, ** March, halt, wheel** 



68 ETYBIOLOGY. 

i 

12. The infinitive nnood has no direct personal agent, bat ' 
applies to actions growing out of a stated condition of things; 
as, Windows are made to admit the light ; the fire is kindled 
to warm the room ; they are preparing to go a journey. 

From an established condition of things, well understood, it is 
easy to deduce the consequence which, in the natural course of 
things, will follow as the result of such combination of poioer, cause , 
and means. 

TENSE. 

13. Tense denotes the form of verbs in relation to time. 

14. There are three tenses ; present, past, and future. 

15. The present tense denotes actions begun and not fin- 
ished ; as, " Emma learns grammar, takes lessons in music, 
and works lace." 

Present time is a line drawn betv/een the past and the future, 
which is continually changing. An action commenced, but not 
completed, is now doing, and hence is said to be in the present time. 
But the moment it is finished it ceases to be present tense. 

16. The past tense expresses completed action ; as, Emma 
learned grammar, took lessons in music, and worked lace. 

The moment an action is finished it becomes past tense, and is so 
indicated in the language used to express it. It is present time frora 
the moment it is begun till it is completed. 

17. The future tense refers to actions which are to occur 
hereafter ; as, I am to go home, he labors to accomplish his 
task. 

Verbs in the indicative mood are in the past oy present tense. 

We can not indicate or assert a positive future action. 

Verbs in the imperative mood are always future. The action di- 
rected to he done and signified by the verb must be future to the 
giving of such direction ; as, Come to me. The act of coming 
must be future to the command. 

Verbs in the infinitive mood are always in the future tense, that 
is, future to the circumstance on which they depend. The conse 



VERBS. 69 

quence can not occur till the cause exists; as, The fire is kindled to 
warm the room. The room will not be warmed by the fire till the 
fire is kindled. 

Human knowledge is restricted to present and past time, and the forms 
of language will only allow those who use them to indicate or declare 
such knowledge. 

From what a person has learned in the past by observing causes and 
effects, consequences resulting from stated conditions of things, he is 
able to determine what is (wills, or tends) to follow, or result, from a sim- 
ilar combination or condition of things now existing 5 as, balloons, infla- 
ted with hydrogen gas, have power to rise, or raise themselves in the air. 

Where knowledge and discernment fail, it is the joy of christians to 
be permitted to rely on the promises of Him whose knowledge of causes 
and effects extends thro all time 5 and by faith to anticipate [ante-capio 
to take, or receive before hand] those blessings which are TO BE his, in 
time to come. 

18. The method by which we express our ideas of a fu. 
ture action is by making an indicative assertion and to it 
adding a verb in the infinitive or unlimited mood ; as, " I am 
TO GO ; he is to go." 

*' Man never is, but (is) always to he blest,'* 

" Who was, and is, and is to come, the Almighty." 

*'■ I will hereafter endeavor to consider this matter deliberately." 

" I am to write a letter to-morrow." 

*' He is preparing himself to go to Europe next year."* 

" He is not here to-day, but he intends to come next week." 

These three distinctions of time are clearly marked and easily 

comprehended. Minor distinctions may be made in numerous ways; 

but there is no form of the verb by which they can be expressed. 

19. To usually precedes words in the infinitive mood, 
but when this mood follows verbs in frequent use, it is 
omitted ; as, Make him ( ) do it ; let him ( ) have it ; bid 
him ( ) go\ hear it ( ) ring ; he will ( ) cZo it ; you 

^Singular as it may appear, and false as it really is, all grammars put 
the infinitive mood in the present and past tenses 5 as, I am to go. To 
go, we are told, is present tense. " He will endeavor next year to raise 
wheat- " Is he now raising it ? 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

must ( ) learn it ; I dare ( ) say so ; have him ( ) 
bring it. 

An imperfect, a ^Zw-perfect,* preter plu-perfect, s€CO?id future, or pavXa 
post future, will hardly accord with facts, ideas, or the form of the En- 
glish language. 

The compounding of words together as a matter of form, is productive 
of much mischief. It burdens the learner's memory, disguises the real 
meaning, and produces habits of carelessness in the study of language. 

It is of little utility to learn scholars that certain words are '^ signs'^ of 
certain moods and tenses. The impression on their minds is, that the 
whole object of studying grammar is to know how to parse, according to 
given rules, instead of learning how to understand and use words in the 
expression of ideas. By modern systems the object of studying language 
is reversed from its true intent. 

20. The most common words of this kind are, hid, can, 
do, dare, feel, hear, let, may, must, make y need, see, shall, and 
will. 

To has a meaning unchanged, whether used to show the relation 
between nouns or verbs, things or actions ; as, he is obligated to de- 
vote himself to my service. 

In one instance it expresses a relation between obligation and 6?e> 
votion ; in the other, between himself and service. 

For formerly preceded the infinitive mood ; as, " He went /or to 
dwell ;" ^'^ for to appear ;" ^' for to keep." 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

21. Person and Number denote the changes of verbs to 
agree with their agents ; as, " I love, he love-5 ; he is, we 
are. 

Person and number attach to the agent and not to the action; 
and in parsing they should be so considered. The action (or verb) 
must agree with the actor (or agent) which produces it, in persoa 
and number. 

Verbs in the imperative and infinitive moods admit no variation 
on account of tense, person, or number. 



^Plus means more, a more than perfect tense j '' Paulo pos^future/'^ 
hornllv a ^^ litf.lp after the futureJ^ 






literally, a " little after the future 



VERBS. 71 

PARTICIPLES. 

22. From verbs are formed two participles, the present 
and past, which become adjectives by use ; as, from rule, 
Tul-ing, rul-ed ; a ruling power, ruled paper. 

Ing is derived from the verb to he, and signifies being, acting, self-mov- 
ing, existing-, and ed from the old verb dede, did, acted, finished; I lov- 
ed, love-did^ did love. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

23. The conjugation of verbs is their regular arrangment 
in regard to mood, tense, number, and person. 

EXAMPLES. 

24. The regular verb LOVE is thus conjugated, thro its 
moods and tenses. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





PRESENT TENSE. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


1st person, 


I love 


we love 


2d « 


thou \o\est 


you or ye love 


3d " 


he. she, or it love^ 

PAST TENSE. 


they love. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st person, 


I \oved 


we loved 


2d « 


thou lovedest 


you loved 


3d -" 


he love^ 


they loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD, 

To love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Past. 

Lowing loved. 



72 ETYMOLOGY, 

The third person singular formerly ended in th instead of s ; 
as, he love^/i, he ha^A, he write*/^, he willef/i, he doth, he saif^. 



25. 


The irregular verb HAVE is thus conjugated. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 






PRESENT TENSE. 


, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


ist 


person, I have 


we have 


2d 


" thon hast* 


you have 


3d 


" he has 

PAST TENSE. 


they have. 


1st 


person, I had 


we had 


2d 


" thou hadst 


you had 


3d 


" he had 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Have. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To have. 

PARTICIPLES. 


they had. 




Present. 


Past. 




Having 


had. 



This word is of extensive use in our language. It signifies to 
claim, retain, or owe, some 7'elation, possession, or duty. The ob. 
ject after it is sometimes expressed, but often omitted. It does not 
always signify to possess as has been supposed. The man had his 
arm cut off: he has his ear frozen ; he has a difficult task imposed 
upon him ; I have (the saying, remark, word or sentence) said, it 
must he so; and I desire to have the said remark distinctly understood. 

I have written a letter. 

I have a written letter. 

I have a letter written. 

These expressions differ very little in meaning ; but the verb have 

^Hast is contracted from havest^ has from haves, and had from haved. 



VERBS. 



73 



is the same in either case. By the first expression, I signify that I 
caused the letter to be written ; by the second, that I possess a let- 
ter on which the action has been performed ; and by the last, that 
such letter some how relates to me. 

He has destroyed his character. 

It is destroyed. 

He has no space allowed him. 

I want you to have my book here to-morrow. 

You must have your lesson learned very soon. 

** I would not have you ignorant, brethren." 

He will have it finished by noon. 

I hold you responsible for the property. 

" I take you to witness, this day." 

" What wilt thou have me do." 

The *• perfect tense referred to the past and conveyed aii allusion 
to the present time," for the simple reason that the verb was in the 
present tense, and the participle in the past. 

He has gone. He is gone. 

" When the fulness of time was come.*' 

When the fulness of time had come. 

When the hour was come. 

When the hour had come. 

** /s it come to this ?" Has it come to this ? 

My hour is come. My hour has come. 

-•* After the uproar was ceased ;" had ceased. 



26. 



BE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singlar* 

1. I am 

2. thou art 

3. he is 



PAST TENSE. 



1. I was 

2. thou wast, or wert 

3. he was 

7* 



PluraL 
we are 
you are 
they are 

we were 
you were 
they were 



74 





ETYMOLOGY. 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






Be. 






INFINITIVE MOOD. 






To be. 






PARTICIPLES. 




Present. 




Past. 


Beinof 




been 



Be was formerly used in the present tense ; as, " For we he breth. 
ren." " The parts of grammar he four .''-^Martin, 1776. " If thou 
he.est he." — Milton, 

" There he of British arms and deeds, 
High tales of merry England.^— Jiame^. 
It is sometimes fonnd in the siippositiye use of the verb ; as, *' If 
it he determined ;" " If I he absent." It is preferable to use the 
regular words. 

" If I am right, thy grace impart, 

Still in the right to stay ; 
If I am wrong, thy grace impart 
To find the better way." — Pope, 

27. 



• 


WRITE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 






Singular. 


PluraL 


1. 


I write 


we write 


2. 


thou writest 


you write 


3. 


he writes 

PAST TENSE. 


they write 


1. 


I wrote 


we wrote 


2. 


thou wrotest 


you wrote 


3. 


he wrote 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Write. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To write. 

PARTICIPLES. 


they wrote. 




Present. 


Past. 




Writing 


written. 



^. DO. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural, 


1. I do 


we do 


2. thou dost or doest 


you do 


2. he does 


they do 


PAST TENSE. 




1. I did 


we did 


2. thou didst 


you did 


2. he did 


they did 


IMPERATIVE MOOD, 




Do. 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 




To do. 




PARTICIPLES. 




Present. 


Past 


Doing 


done 



This verb, like have and he, sustains a very important character 
m our language. It is so full of meaning, that it is often employed 
to give force and emphasis to an expression ; as. Does he do it ? I 
4o contend. How do you do ? 

It formerly had the object expressed after it ; as, " We do you to 
wit." — 2 Cor. 8:1. " Do thy diligence to come shortly unto me. — 
2 Tim, 4 : 9 and 21. But the object being generally correctly un- 
derstood, it is not expressed. Do ( ) come to me ; do something, 
(move thy self, make some effort,) to come to me ; act ( ) in 
some way to bring yourself here. I do write ; I do something to 
write. 

29 The future tense is regularly expressed by adding a 
verb in the infinitive mood to the indicative statennent ; as, 
^* We exhort you to love one another:" the trees are begin- 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

ning to put forth their blossoms ; he waits to receive his or- 
der ; I am resolved to do it. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am to love, We are to love. 

Thou art to love, You are to love. 

He is to love, They are to love. 

I was to love, We were to love. 

Thou wast to love, You were to love. 

He was to love, They were to love. 

I have to go, I had to go, 

I will (to) go. I intend to go. I resolve to go. 

I must go. I am obliged to go. 

I can ( ) read. I know how to read. I am able to read. 

I shall ( ) obey. I am required to obey* I am bound to obey. 

I bade him ( ) stay. I commanded him to stay. 

He makes me ( ) laugh. He compels me to laugh. 

The action signified in the infinitive may not be future to the 
present time, but future to that assertion, or condition of things up- 
on which it is dependent ; as, Moses ascended Mount Sinai, to 
receive the law ; I put my self under the protection of the viceroy 
to be secure ; we came here this morning to learn truth. 

30. There are four methods of expressing actions in the 
indicative mood, the positive, negative, interrogative, and 
suppositive. 

31. In Xho positive form a simple assertion is made ; as, 
he reads his book, he learns it well ; I heard him ( ) say 
it ; he makes pens. 

32. In the negative, a word is added to express the nega- 
tion ; as, I know not the man ; he came not nigh me ; 
" There was not a man found to till the earth." 

33. In the interrogative form, the verb precedes the 
agent ; as. Know you the man ? Is it this book ? Will you 
go ? Are you disposed to go ? Will it be denied ? Is it 
to be denied. 



VERBS. 77 

The negation is sometimes added to the interrogative, generally 
for emphasis ; as, will you not ( ) do it ? Does he not ( ) strive ? 
^' Heard you not the noise ?" 

34. la the suppositive form, the certain or probable 
qffir^native is signified by putting the verb in the present 
tense, and the certain or probable negative, by putting it in 
the past tense"^; as, 1^1 go I will carry your letter. 

If I was io go, or should I go, I would carry your letter. Was^ 
I a Turk I might be a Mahomedan ; but as I am a Christian, I may 
not approve the prophet's religion. Had he the ability he would 
( ) do it. Did he possess the talent he could not ( ) fail. 

If we say "it should be admitted," we imply that it is not ad- 
mitted. 

This form is used most frequently in reference to the simple fact, 
or to the decisions of the will ; and in respect to liberty, or ohliga. 
tion ; and hence those words which signify such facts are in more 
common use in this form than others. 

Be was formerly extensively used in the present tense^ singular 
and plural, and wer^ in the past tense singular^ especially in the 
suppositive use of the verb ; as. If I be there ; if we be there ; Were 
I a Greek, I would labor to regain the ancient honor of my nation. 
Bel Q, man and shall I fear to speak my mind ? It is preferable to 
use the regular past and present tense ; as, am I, was I, were we ; 
If I «m right; iflicas, etc. 

Many writers who use the present tense in the suppositive form 
do not give the third person singular its regular termination ; as, 
*' If he have,''^ for if he has ; if he admit {s) it ; if he love (5). The 
regular Torm is preferable. 

35. There is another form of the verb used to express a 
v/ish or a prayer of one person for some thing to be done to 
or for an other; as, "The Lord reward him;" "The 
Lord deal kindly with thee and grant, etc. ;" " Peace be 
with you ;" His kindness keep theoe" " Thy blade defend 
thee." 

*Thls is a very essential character in the correct and eloquent use of 
the verb^ and should be well understood by learners. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

36. Defective verbs are not conjugated in all the moods 
and tenses. 

37. The most common are am, he, can, go, may, must, 
shall, and luilL^ 

These words, on account of the importance of their meaning and 
the frequency of their use, have assumed special applications in the 
construction of sentences. Some of them have been called auxiliary 
or helping, and defective verbs. They are truly defective in regard 
to their conjugations, but are no more auxiliary than every verb in 
our language. 

All of them were formerly, and most of them still are occasionally 
used in their regular form. Their manner of meaning has not been 
changed by the manner of their user 

Am^ is, are, was, were, and he, are from different etymons altho 
congugated together. 

Go has no past tense. Went is from wend, but is used as the past 
tense of ^o. 

—They are no more auxiliarly to other verbs, than hid, dare, feel, 
hear, let, make, need, and see ; for, like them, they all have a mean- 
ing of their own, distinct from the verbs which follow them without 
the sign to, 

EXAMPLES. 

Will. *'I will go, if health permits.'''' Here it is signified that 
my present inclination or will is to go, allowing health permits. I 
will, or resolve to go. 

Will signifies volition in things capable of exercising it ; and, in 
other things what is analagous to it, inherent tendency. The stone 
will (has the tendency) to sink, while the cork will (has the qual- 
ity) to swim. It formerly had the regular termination like other 
verbs ; as, " Not as I will but as thou wilt.^^ It is not of him that 
willeth nor of him that runneth. 

" We do not otherwise than w^e are willed." — King Henry. 

" Willed me to leave my base vocation. — Idem. 

** As will the rest, so willeth Winchester. — Idem. 

*Qwoi/i, quod, wot; wist, sith, marry, and some others, occur in the 
Bible and in old books. They are rarely used at the present time. 



VERBS. 79 

'' He wills to be thy servant, not thy slave." — Shakspeare. 
" Meanwhile as nature wills, night bids us rest/' — Milton. 

Would is the past tense of will. It does not always seem to ex- 
press the direct past tense of will, but rather a contingency in re- 
gard to those circumstances which may have an influence over us ; 
and hence it is often used in the suppositive form of expression ; as, 
'^ Would you learn the truth, you mws^ exercise your reason." I 
would ( ) have you ( ) understand. 

This word was formerly used as a principal verb ; as, '« Would to 
God you could bear with me." 

" But ye would none of my reproof." — Prov. 1 : 25. 

'• Whom he would he slew, and whom he would he kept alive, 
and whom he would he set up, and whom he would he put down.'* 
-^Dan. 5 : 19. 

**^ I would that all men were as I am." — Paul, 

" Would God we had died."— iVwm. 20 : 3. 

" What wouldst thou V'—Josh. 25 : 18. 

" O would I were to die with Salisbury."^ — Shakspeare. 

It was until quite lately pronounced wolld, and was formerly spelled 
tcoll, wolld. Within ten years^ old people have so pronounced it. 

Shall, from the Saxon sccelan or scylan, signifies to be bounds 

obligated, required^ constrained, by some external necessity, or 

circumsiances. It was formerly extensively used as a principal 

verb ; as, in the Homily, " To Him alone we schall us to devote us 

to God." 

'' The faith we schall to God." — Chaucer. 

The difference between shall and ivill is easily distinguished when 
their meaning is known. It would be difficult to give rules for their use 
without explaining their true etymology : That done^ no rules are 
needed.* 



*Long and frequent essays have been written to teach the proper use 
of s^aW and W'iZZ, without ever hinting at their etymological derivation^ 
or giving their meaning. Considering them devoid of meaning, they 
have sometimes been confounded in our country, but less fraquently in 
England. Let their meaning be known, and the correct and elegant use 
of them V, 11 follow without any difficulty. 

Let the advanced learner inquire on what ground writers on grammar 
have placed the present tense of shall and will in the indicative mood, 
as a sign cS the future tense, while the past tense is deposited in an other 
mood, under widely different circumstances. If will and shall indicate 



80 " ETYMOLOGY. 

Can, Tcen^ con, cunn, are different spellings of the same word^ 
of which cunnm^ is the participial noun. It signifies to see, per. 
ceive, know, to acquire by knowledge ; as, the child can (knows 
how to) read ; the child can walk, run, talk, and sing, after it has 
learned how ; but it can do no such thing until it is learned ; for 
mere strength without knowledge to direct it accomplishes nothing. 

Must, signifies to be hound, restrained, or compelled, by some 
controlling power, or circumstance, which enforces such restraint ; 
as, I must return, circumstances render it indispensable. You must 
obey me. Your relation to me and to my government puts you un-^ 
der obligation to obey my commands. 

** He must needs go thro Samaria." He had need, was under the 
necessity. "Ye have need of patience." " Hit is then nede^ — Tyn- 
dale's Testament, 

"It must need be." — Bishop Hammond, 

The air in the cask is musty when it has been long hound, con^ 
fined, or restrained from free circulation. 

May — might, signifies power, ability, as w^ell as skill and liberty ^ 
as, You may leave. This is only said where the person has the 
might, or ability to do so. May I go out ? You may. You have 
my consent to lay oflT the restraint under which you are placed, and 
to exercise your own might, strength, or ability, as w^ell as the lib- 
erty I now give you to go out. But when a person faints, it is not 
said, you may go out ; because such assertion gives no might with 
the liberty. 

The only difficulty in the explanation of these words, is the want of 
suitable means to define their meaning. Our dictionaries do not explain 
them, and our grammar makers have undertaken to explain their tise. 
with out asking their meaning. It is no wonder they have not been un- 
derstood. They have been called " auxiliary or helping'^ verbs ; merely 
used to help conjugate other verbs. But if they have no meaning of their 
own, v/hat service or help can they render 1 

It is singular, why will and shall are thought to express future 
time, w^hile may, must, and ca?i, are present. If these words are 



intention and obligation, how can would and should signify power ? By 
what authority is the intimate connexion of the present and past tenses of 
the same words destroyed ; one forced to be the mere sign of the future 
tense of an other word, and the other to help express the imperfect poweE 
of still an other word ? 



VERBS, 81 

unmeaning, and yet " auxiliary, or helping ^^ why do they mark the 
potential or powerful mood ? If the power is in the principal verb, 
as it is called, and not in the auxiliary, why is it present time ? 

Do the expressions '^ I can, I may, I miLst go," signify that I am going, in 
the present time ? But if they signify the present liberty or poioer to go, 
then which toord denotes such power or liberty, and in what tense 
is g-o ? 

Is not the action ongoing, in respect to time, the same, whether I say, 
" I will go, must go, shall go, can go, wai/ go, am to go, expect to go, or 
intend to go ? And is not the idea of resolution, obligation, ability, liber- 
ty , conveyed by the words will, must, can, may? Which then is the 
principal verb ? and in what tense is go ? 

38. There is an other class of defective verbs which are 
now rarely used except in the imperative mood. 

They are used to give directions to the readers or hearers to per- 
form in their minds what is necessary to enable them to understand 
the meaning of the sentence ; as, Let us consider ; if he refuses to 
admit it ; tho he denied the one, yet he confessed the other. 

39. The most common words of this class are, huty else, 
if, tho or though, altho, unless, and yet 

Let, save, except, and some others, have assumed a very similar 
character, but (add this fact,) they are still retained as common 
verbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

But is traceable from two different etymons, thro various changes, 
to its present form. 

But, from the Saxon hotan, signifies to boot, add, super-add, join 
or unite ; as, You have done quite well, but {add this idea or fact — 
what ?) you must try to do still better. 

" Not only saw he all that was ; 

But (add) much that never came to pass."— M'l^i/j^aZ. 

*' It is butted and bounded as follows." — Old deed. 

To hutt-on is derived from the same verb, io join or fasten one 
Bide to the other. It has been spelled at different times hotan, hoote\ 
bote, hot, butte, butt, but. 
8 



89 ETYMOLOGY. 

*' What boots it thee to fly from pole to pole, 
Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll ? 
What boots ( ) thro space's fatherest bourns to roaiHj 
If thou, oh man, a stranger art at home ?" — Grainger, 

" If love had booted care or cost." 

In the exchange of property one man gives, and the other receive* 
boot, or something to add or to boot to the inferior property to make 
it equal. — See page 25. 

But, compounded of be and utan, out, be-utan, signifies be-out, 
leave out, save, omit, except ; as. All but (leave out, save, except) 
one are here. Leave out one, all are here. 

♦* Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All but (save, omit, except) the page prescribed our present state. 

Pope. 

** When nought but (save) the torrent was heard on the hills, 
And nought but (save, omit) the nightingale's song in the grove."" 

" Nothing but (save) fear restrained him." 

'* I determined to know nothing among you, save (but) Christ 

and him crucified." 

Any thing but (save) a " dis-junciiye cow-junction," 

" These (changes,, seasons) are (nothing) but the varied God." 

Thompson. 

In sentences which are very elliptical this word is thought to signify 
the same as only ; but (add this) let the ellipses be filled and it will be 
found to possess its true character ; as, ^' They had (none) but five loaves^ 
and a few fishes.'^ 

Let has undergone the same changes as but. Let me go 3 permit me 
to go. He let his house 5 permitted an other to occupy it. ''Houses to 
let/' or lease. " He that letteth will let till he be taken away." He 
that hindereth will hinder. " I was let (prevented) hitherto." — Bible. 
Like but it is derived from two different etymons, and the sentence after 
it is the object } as, " And what I do imagine, let that rest." 

Else, less, and unless, or onless, as formerly spelled, have the 
same meaning differently applied. They signify release, omit, dis- 
miss, relinquish, yield, what has preceded or what follows. 

Else directs the hearer to release, separate, dismiss, what has 
preceded ; and unless what follows after ; as, You must study, else 
you will not be wise. Seven less five, two remain. Seven release, 
take out five, two remain. 

I will go unless {release, less, or take away this fact) I am pre- 
vented. 



VERBS, 83 

■^^ We must away, else all is gone." 

All is gone unless we are away. Else, release, dismiss the fact, 
•* we must away," all is gone. 

" Except ye repent ye shall all likewise perish ;" unless , release, 
dismiss, except, the idea, "ye repent," ye shall perish. 

Else directs the hearer or reader to release, set free, leave out, or 
dismiss in his mind what has preceded, and less or unless what fol- 
lows after ; except when less is compounded with other words, in 
which case it implies that the word to which it is suffixed is to be 
omitted in idea. A match-Zess horse, a worth-/es5 fellow, a bottom- 
less pit, imply that no match for the horse is known, that the fellow 
has no worth (value,) and the pit no bottom. Ten less six, four 
remain. Else, less, and unless are from the same etymon, and have 
the same meaning with the distinction in the application of that 
meaning as above noticed. 

Lest is the past participle of these words, *' Let him that think- 
eth he standeth, take heed lest he fall." 

" Take heed" lest, leased, omitted, left out, " he fall," or will 
fall. 

If. This word has -been spelled within the last four centuries, 
gy.ff\ giff^ gife, give, gin, yiff, yef, yeve, yff, yf, iff, if. Y and g, in 
the characters in which our language was formerly written, are 
nearly alike, and /a ad v are still often transferable.* Hence the 
change as above seen was easy and natural. 

If is an imperative verb from the Saxon gifan, give, grant, 
allow, admit, suppose ; as. If one book costs fifty cents, what will 
ten cost at the same rate ? Give, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact) 
" one book costs fifty cents." 

It formerly admitted a direct object after it ; and modernly the 
adjective that, referring ta the following sentences, often occurs, 
which defines the idea stated at length in the following sentence, 
and thus becomes the object ofif: as in the cases below. 

" Giflufhe vertew, then is it leful thing ; 

Gif it be vice, it is your undoing." — Douglass, p. 95. 

" Ne I ne wol non reherce, yef that I may." — Chaucer. 

" Oh haste, and come to my master, deare, 
Gin ye be Barbara Allen." — Burns. 

* See pages 23 and 26. Wiclif^s Translation, quot. 1. Peter, 5 1 4. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

" She was so charitable and so pytous, 

She would wepe yf that she sawe a mous 

Caught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde." — Prioress. 

" Belike, your lordship takes us then for fools, 

To try if that our own be ours, or no." 

1st part King Henry. 
" Open the gates to the lord protector ; 
Or we will burst them open, if that ye come not quickly." — Idem. 

Tho, though^ (Saxon thofan) signifies admity suppose, allow ; 
altho, all-tho, admit all, grant all. " He resolved to go, altko 
{admit all) it was evident he would not succeed." 

Yet, (Saxon, gyt, get,) the same as get and formerly so written. 

*' Tho he slay me yet will I trust in him." 

Admit, allow (this fact) he slay me, yet, get, have, know (this 
fact also) / will trust in him. 

Yes is the same word as yet and get. It means have, get or take 
my consent to the question asked. " Can I have it ?" Yes ; have 
it, get it ; as you ask. Nay is the ne-yes, no-yes, ne-ga-iion. The 
aye or ayes and nays were taken ; the consent and dissent. Aye 
ayes (French, ayez) has the same meaning. 

"Can you walk?" Yes. *' Can you fly ?" Yes. "Canyon 
turn the world over ?" Yes. The error in the two last sentences 
lies in directing me to have your consent to things which are not 
true. " Can you fly ?" Nay, ne-yes ; you have not my consent to 
such an idea. 

In modern use these verbs like many other words have become 
well understood and are convenient in giving directions to those 
who hear or read our ideas, expressed by signs, how to arrange and 
understand those signs to get at our meaning. The direction is 
given to second persons in the imperative mood, and such persons 
are expected to regard the directions, which are like guide boards 
given to direct them in the way to come at our ideas. 

Such ideas, written out, are the objects of the verbs, or the things 
to be allowed, added, released, or retained, according to the direc 
tions given. 

This theme would be pursued further did the present limits allow ; 
but (add) they do not. The student will follow out the hints here given 
and find them neither incorrect nor unimportant. But if [add what fol- 
lows and allow, this fact^) circumstances permit, it shall be resumed at 
some future day, tko (understand) we can not now tell when. 



VERBS. 85 

There were several other words of this character formerly in use but 
which are now obsolete except in old writings. An signified the same 
as if, " An that you may.'^ ^' Marry, sith," etc. 



QUESTIONS* ON CHAPTER VIII. 

1. What are Verbs? 

To what did they originally apply ? 

2. What three things are to be observed in the study of 
verbs, 1st? 2d I 3d? 

What is agent in the example ? 

What word expresses the action ? 

What the object ? 

What is a prime law of nature, 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 4th ? 

With what must our ideas correspond ? 

With what must our language correspond ? 

Can there be any deviation from these principles ? 

Does the knowledge or ignorance of facts or principles, alter the 
ifiacts themselves ? 

Were the principles of astronomy always known ? 

Did language change to correspond with their new ideas ? 

Has the small atom power to retain its place ? 

Do trees grow ? How do you know the fact ? 

What power does arsenic possess ? 
" Canihe magnetic needle act ? What does it do ? 

Does the desJc perform any more action in supporting the book 
than the book does in laying on it ? Is it reciprocal ? 

What are some of the principles of mechanics ? 

How is the existence of actions known ? 



*Teachers will add such questions as they may deem essential to 
give a clear understanding of the principles here involved, adapted to the 
capacities of their pupils. 

8* 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

How do you know that heat passes from a hot brick to a cold 
one ? 

Could an inactive verb be used in the imperative mood ? Why ? 

Can eating and drinking be performed without an object eaten 
or drunken ? 

3. Of how many kinds are verbs? 

4. What are regular verbs ? 

5. How do irregular verbs form the past tense and past 
participle? 1st? 2d? 3d? 4th? 5th? 6th? 7th? 

6. Are any verbs ever used in either way ? 

7. What do verbs admit ? 

8. What does mood express ? 

9. How many moods ? 

10. What does the indicative mood indicate ? 

Is the agent always a single thing ? 

11. What does the imperative mood denote ? 

12. To what does the infinitive mood apply ? 

13. What is tense ? 

14. How many tenses are there ? 

15. What does the present tense denote ? 

What is present time ? 

16. What is the past tense ? 

When an action is finished, in what tense is it ? 

17. What is the fiiture tense? 

In what tenses are verbs in the indicative mood ? 

What in the imperative mood ? 

What in the infinitive mood ? 

To what tenses is human knowledge restricted ? 

How do we judge of the future ? 

18. By what method do we express our ideas of future 
action ? 



VERBS. 87 

19. What word usually . precedes the infinitive mood ? 
When is it omitted ? 

20. What are the most common words after which it is 
omitted ? 

21. What do person and number denote ? 

To what do they attach ? 

Are verbs in the imperative and infinitive moods varied ? - 

22. What are formed from verbs ? 

23. What is conjugation of verbs ? 

24. What is the indicative mood, present tense, of love ? 

First person, singular ? Plural ? Second person ? Past tense ? 
What is the imperative mood ? Infinitive ? Participles, present T 
Fast ? 
How did the third person, singular, formerly end ? 

25. Conjugate have. 
What does have signify ? 

26. Conjugate he. 

Was be ever used in the indicative present ? Is it now so used ? 

27. Conjugate write. 

28. Conjugate do. 

In what is this word usually employed ? 

29. How is the future tense regularly expressed ? 

30. By how many methods are actions indicated ? 

31. What is the positive form? 

32. What is the negative ? 

33. What is the interrogative ? 

34. What is the suppositive ? 

35. Is the verb ever used in any other form ? 

36. What are defective verbs ? 

37. What are the most common ? 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

What is the meaning of will? Would? Shall? Can? Must? 
May? 

In regard to the act of going, is there any difference in time when 
I eay, I will go, I must go, I am to go, or make him go, 

38. In what mood are some defective words principally 
Toeed? 

For what are they used ? 

39. What are the most common words of this class ? 

What is the meaning of but ? 

Has let undergone a similar change ? 

Whatis the meaning of eZse? Unless 1 Less? If? Tho ? 

What is the meaning of yes ? Nay ? 

To what persons are these directions given ? 

Were there formerly any other words of this character ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 



CHAPTER IX. 



CONTRACTIONS.* 

i. OoNTR ACTIONS are words so compounded, abbreviated, 
and disguised, that their meaning and use are not easily ex- 
plained ; as, " I always prefer to remain as I am, rather than 
adopt an other course, merely because it is new ; neverthe- 
less I would never reject a truth, nor an improvement, sole/y 
because it is an innovation." 

EEMAEKS. 

In the use of language, v/ords and sentences become changed, 
compounded, abbreviated, and otherwise disguised by habit, till their 
manner of formation and their manner of meaning , are not gene- 
rally understood, nor their relation to other words and sentences 
readily comprehended. 

" Abbreviation and corruption," says a distinguished philologistjt 
*' are always busiest with words which are most frequently in use. 
Letters, like soldiers, are very apt to desert and drop off, in a long 
march, and especially if their passage happens to lie near the con- 
fines of an enemy's country." 

A single word often becomes the representative of a whole s^n^ 



*It should be distinctly understood that this name is appropriated to a 
class of words, the meaning and use of which it is not easy to explain 
not because it expresses exactly their character in all cases. It is the 
most suitable term which could be selected to cover the whole ground. 

The words arranged under this class belong to nouns, adjectives, or 
verbs ; and when the means shall be afforded by which their true charac- 
ter and use shall be known, they will be so arranged. This name is 
chosen as a temporary eccpedient, (quite as suitable as those in common 
use,) to obviate, as far as possible, difficulties which are found to exist 
in all the grammar books, and which teachers and learners have hitherto 
found it difficult to understand and explain. 

iHorne Tooke's " Diversions of FnrleyJ' 



90 



ETYMOLOGY. 



tence, and frequently expresses a compound or relative idea, in re- 
gard to time, place, quality, manner, or comparison. 

To gain a clear definition of the meaning and use of these words, 
it is necessary to restore the abbreviated, and separate the com! 
pounded parts, and to place all in the original condition. 

Any man can examine the debris of a temple, ruined for ages, but 
it requires a skilful hand to restore its dismembered parts and give 
it its ancient magnificence. 

Most sentences are elliptical ; but what is omitted by the writer 
must be supplied by the reader, else he can not gain a knowledge of 
what is intended to be represented. 

In explaining these broken, detached, and changed words and 
phrases, much depends upon the teacher and learner, who, by the 
aid of the best authorities, should follow them back as far as possi, 
ble, thro old authors, and search out the original form, meaning, 
and use of their etymons. 

To aid in this important branch of philological science, the fol. 
lowing brief collection of the most important words, and their ex. 
planations are given, which may serve as a hint to those who would 
pursue the subject farther. The limits of the present work will not 
allow of any extended remarks. 

It is believed the modern classification of these words into "ad- 
verbs, conjunctions," etc. has served no good purpose, because the 
scholar has not thereby been able to learn their etymology in form 
or meaning. 

In fact, little attempt has been made to ferret out their meaning ; 
and so they have been treated as tho they had none.* Can children 
parse or use words correctly before they know what they mean ? 

Most authors of grammars have regarded them as indeclinable 
in their manner of formation, and unimportant in their manner of 
meaning. But those who have pursued their inquiries to any 
length, admit that, properly explained, they belong to nouns, adjec- 
tives, or verbs. t 



*The learned Home Tooke, in his^^ Diversions of Purley/^ as a mere 
etymologist, has done essential service to this department of language. 

fRev. Alex. CrombiC; LL. D. 5 F. R. S.5 M. B. S. L. : F. Z. S.;(!!) 
m his '' Etymology and Syntax of the English Language/' says of Ad- 
verbs; Prepositions, and Conjunctions: ^-'lam persuaded that from a 



CONTRACTIONS. 91 

Is it of any service to call them ** adverbs," " conjunctions," " ad- 
verbial phrases," or any thing else, until their meaning is first un- 
derstood ? When that is done, it is not very essential what they 
are called^ Names are but trifles. 

Altho these words often change their form, and some times their 
relations, their meaning is essential to a correct knowledge of the 
ideas of those who use them. If it was not so, they would not be 
so frequently used as they are. 

When people began to reason, to compare, combine, and deduce, 
their ideas became complex, and several sentences were joined to- 
gether to express them. Some directions became necessary to show 
the connexion and bearings of those parts of compounded sentences 
upon each other ; and the briefest words or phrases were chosen for 
this purpose, till, in process of time, a single word embodied a for- 
mer phrase, and conveyed the sense in a more expressive manner. 

Languages in their first formation, and children, and those learn- 
ing foreign languages, employ very few of these contractions. Their 
sentences are short, distinct, and expressive, and accord with their 
ideas. 

The most difficult task in the acquisition of a new language is to 
understand and use correctly their abbreviated phrases. The nouns, 
adjectives, and verbs, are easily comprehended ; but those express- 
ive signs which embody whole ideas, or give directions how to re- 
gard the relation, influence, and bearing of different sentences, are 
less readily acquired. 

When languages are better understood, and ideas are more nu- 
merous, short phrases, brief expressions, and contracted words are 
used to connect, compare, and combine them together. But words 
were not, as Mr. Murray says, " originally contrived^'' for this pur- 
pose, but were habitually corrupted into this service. 

Again I say, let the meaning of these words be clearly understood, 
and teachers will find no difficulty in explaining them intelligibly, 
nor their pupils in using them correctly. 



general review of this subject, it must be evident that they form no dis- 
iincf species of words , Siud thB.t they are all reducible to the classes of 
either nouns or attributes, (adjectives) if their original character and 
real import be considered.^' And yet he had not moral courage, with all 
his titles, sufficient to search out ^' their original character and real wt- 
port," but fell in with the current and went down with the stream. 



955 ETYMOLOGY- 

2. An extensive class of these words end in ly, and ex- 
press likeness by comparison with other things ; as, birds 
sing siveetly ; he acted vxisely, 

3. Ly is contracted from like. It retains its former mean- 
ing and some times its original form ;. as, angel -ZzAre, judas- 
like, dowe-Iike, sy\ph-Hke, ocean-Zile, scho\ar-like. 

Some words are used either way ; as, God-like, godly ; lady. like, 
lady-ly ; gentleman-like, gentlemanly . The tendency is to prefer 
ly to like, as fast as the words become commonly used. 

Like is frequentry used as a noun, adjective, and verb ; as, " We 
shall never look on his like again." " Every like is not the same.*' 
" I like thy plan." One person likes an other, and most people 
have their likes and dislikes, " In like manner, like minded," are 
common expressions. One thing is like an other when it is liked 
or likened to it. Hence this word is generally used as a ♦* partici- 
pial adjective," describing one thing by its relation of likeness to 
an other. 

'*^On the other, shapes 
Of dream-K^g softness drew the fancy /ar 
Into the glistening air ; hut most I felt 
Her loveliness, when summer evening tints 
Gave to my lonely childhiood sense of home." 

EXAMPLES. 

'' Birds sing sweetly J^ The singing of birds can only be known by the 
notes, tunes, songs, or things sung 5 and the kind, quality or description 
of such notes^ tunes, or songs, are determined by a comparison with other 
notes, tunes, or songs, which we h?cve heard sung ; and they are pro- 
nounced sit'ce^ or harsh, discordant or harmonious, pleasant or disagree- 
able, according as they suit our notions of what in sound is sweet, or 
harsh, etc. When we say " birds sing sweetly,'' we mean that, accord- 
ing to our judgment, they sing something (songs, tunes, or notes,) sweetly, 
or sweet, Zi^c sonaething we have heard sung before. If the bird singa 
nothing, how can it be determined whether it sings sweetly or not ? If 
the quality is determined by the thing sung, then sweetly describe such 
thing and not the action as has been supposed.* 

* As singular as it may appear, those systems of grammar which treat 
of 7iei*^r verbs, or verbs which express no action, allow '' adverts" to 
qualify such neuter verbs j that is, " express manner of action," where 
there is none^ 



CONTRACTIONS. 93 

'* He speaks ( ) icisely." He speaks ( ) what? He speaks (words, a 
speech, sentiments, or ideas) wisely, or wise like other words, speech, or 
sentiments. But if he speaks nothing, that is, if speaks has no object af- 
ter it, how shall it be determined whether he speaks wisely ; or, in fact, 
whether he speaks at all ? 

There is some sort of likeness, intimate, mediate, or distant, betw^een 
all created things 3 and thinking beings adopt various methods by which 
to convey their ideas of such likeness. They are at liberty to compare 
all finite things with each other, and choose out words to express their 
ideas of likeness or unlikeness ; but they are not allowed to make *'^ a 
likeness" of the uncreated Parent Mind, for ^^ who (or what) can be 
likened unto him V Mind is unlike matter 5 the properties of mind and 
matter are dissimilar. 

Likeness may refer to form, quality, action, condition, or circum- 
stance of matter or mind, and may be general or special : but no 
rules can be given to control our own or to guide the ideas and lan- 
guage of others, in regard to likeness or unlikeness ; unless it is to 
exercise reason and good taste ourselves, and teach others to do so, 
in distinguishing between things which agree and those which dif- 
fer. 

The like-ness of actions can only be determined by the similarity 
of their effects. The comparison must be made between the objects 
of the verbs ; as, " He writes well, better than his brother." Writes 
what ? A writing, a letter, a word, line, page, or copy. The 
writings or things written are compared. 

"She sings ( ) finely y more finely than her sister." What is 
more finely ? The singing; and the singing is determined by the 
sounds uttered. She exercises the vocal organs which causes regu- 
lar vibratory motions of the air, the medium of sound, which vibra- 
tions float to our ears and produce what we call sound; and the vibra= 
lions being in regular succession, produce harmony or music. 

It is useless to pursue this point farther. Teachers and learners can 
apply these principles as they advance. They will find them easy and 
important, because correct. 

4. Words called contractions generally refer to time, 
place, nnanner, condition, or circunnstance. 

Those words which refer to time and place, are most frequently 
used without a direct relation to the other words in the sentence ; 
9 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

and hence no words are employed in such cases to describe rela- 
tion, because there is none in fact to be expressed ; as, '' He de- 
parted yesterday, and expects to return next day after to-morrow." 
*' The building is fifty feet long and twenty feet high." " I lived 
there (in that place) a year or more." 

It is unnecessary in such cases to supply words to express rela- 
tion between the time thus specified and the present time ; for such 
relation is better understood without such signs than with them. 

The following list contains the words of this kind in most fre- 
quent use, and their definitions. 

And, is the past participle of an obsolete verb, an-ed, cned, unu 
ted, joined. It is from the same root as one, an, and a, One-ness, 
atonement, or at-one-ment, are still used. It is used to signify that 
the process of one-ing, joining, uniting, or connecting, has been per- 
formed. As an adjective, it describes one word or sentence in the 
relation to an other word or sentence as produced by such action ; 
as, " two and three, (two, three added,) make five." 

It was a long time ago put after the words ; as, " James, John, 
William, and (added, joined, united together,) go to school." By 
habit we place it before the last word instead of after it, as formerly, 
but omit it in other cases. Latterly it is considered more elegant in 
some cases, to put it between each noun ; as, " the sun, and moon, 
and stars ;" " the hills, and vales, and fields, and flowers, and rocks, 
and floods, yea, nature all." It is also used to connect distinct ideas 
expressed in simple sentences when combined, added, or joined, to- 
gether. 

As, is a definitive word, this, the, that, those, these, what, which, 
the same; as, *' He believes]Gs.(the same principles, facts, or truths) • 
he was taught. I did as {what, the same) you directed me. Avoid 
such as are vicious." ** It was stated as follows." " I can go as 
well as you." I can go as (in the same) well (way or manner) as 
(in the same) you can go. For as much as it was. " To as (the same) 
many as (the same) received him to them he gave." 

This word is always a defining adjective, refering either to a 
single v/ord or to a v;hole sentence ; as, {the same illustrated,) " To 
such as obey me." ** As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever 
shall be." 



CONTRACTIONS. 95 

*' Ye can not clasp me round 
With darkness so substantial as can shut 
The airy visions ^ ^ * when L 
Am passionless as ye." — Talfourd. 

So, is also a definitive uord ; that, those^ the said, the specified 
thing, fact, or circumstance. '' And it was 50." — Gen. 1 : 7, 9, 11, 
15. '' According to that which was spoken, so (the same) shall thy 
eeed be." — Rom. 4 : 18. 

^4.5 and SG are often used in connexion ; as, " But not as the of- 
fence, so also is the free gift. And not as it was by one that sinned, 
so is the gift." — Rom. 5 : 15, 16. " As the one dieth, so dieth the 
other." " As the stars, 5-0 shall thy seed be." " So great, so good, 
so wise." '^ So much the more as the time approaches." 

Also, all the same ; " as with one, so with the rest." 

Already, all is ready, all prepared. 

Always, all Vv'ays, in every manner ; at all tijnes^ when changed 
from place to time. 

Because, be the cause, the cause be. " I shall adopt it, because 
(be the cause, the cause be, or is,) it is true.^^ These words were 
alwnys separate till within two centuries. 

i o?., force, cause, power, means. " We ran, for (the cause, im- 
pelling force was.) the enemy pursued us." <*We reject it for 
{because, the cause, force, or reason is) it is wrong." It is not many 
years since to was used after this word, for (the cause, or reason 
was,) to make the sense more plain. It is used so in some 
cases, by good authors, at the present day. It is common in the 
Bible. 

First, fir-est, far-est, fore-est, fore-most; first time, first thing. 

Finally, finis, the end, like the end. to conclude, like the final 
part. 

FoPvTH, out of, from one place to an other. " He put them /or?A," 
""out of the way. 

Further, farther along, more distant, /wr^^e;-more. 

Ever, is the old noun for life ; hence, age, period, time, duration. 
* FoPv EVER, for the ever, time, age, period, duration. 

How, in what way or manner. How is the old noun for rnind. 
" How (with what mind, intent,) did he do it ?" 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

Here, his-area, this area, spot, or place. Area means space, spot, 
place. Arejia is a modification of the same word. 

Hence, from this spot, place, or position. Thence, from that 
spot, or position. In argument, from this or that premise, or po- 
sition. 

Here-after, after this time, or era. " A long hereafter." ^'Here- 
after ages may behold." 

Hither, to this place or time. Hither-to, to or until this time. 
Hereby, by this, the present fact or evidence. *' Hereby know 
we that we love him ;" by this evidence, the proof here stated. - 
Indeed, " in deed, and in truth." 
Lastly, like the last thing ; the latest. 

Meantime, in the mean time, the mean diameter, the viean height. 
The given duration between two points of time. 

Otherwise, other ways, by other means. 

Only, onely, like one thing, fact, or circumstance. 

Or, contracted from other, refers to ways or means understood. 
»» You or (other w^se) I must go." — See page 25. 

Once, one time ; twice, two times ; thrice, three times. 

Nor, ne-or, not other, not other wise ; ne-eiihei, not either. 

Not, ne-ought, no ought, no-thing, no whit. 

Now, this time, at the present. Now is also the noun time. 

Perhaps, per (the Latin by, thro,) haps, chance, by chance. 

*♦ More blessed hap did ne'er befal our state." — Shale. 

" Or how haps it I seek not to advance." — Same, 

Peradventure, by adventure, per chance, per force. 
Really, real-like, like something real. 

Since, *' synnys," seen as, the time seen, a specified time, seen, 
known, or understood. — See page 27. 

Straightway, in or by a straight way, a direct path or route. 

Then, that time. The etymon of this word may be traced thro 
most European languages, with little variations. The Latin an- 
num, signifies primarily a circle or ring, and hence (from this) a, round 
or period of time, in which a circle or circuit is performed ; as a 



CONTRACTIONS. 97 

year^ a month, (moon-eih,) a day, or time in general ; for our ideas 
of the revolution of time are marked by the rounds, periods, or revo- 
lutions, the space in which some thing is revolved, turned round, or 
changed. Then has been spelled, at different periods, tha-anne, 
tharine, thane, theane, thene, and then. 

"We seen nowe hi a mirror in darcnesse; thanne forsothe, face 
to face : Nowe I know of partye ; thanne forsothe schal know as I 
am knowen. 1 Cor, 13 : 12. Widif's Test. Tran. 1350. 

The same passage read in 1526, "Nowe we se in a glasse in a 
darke speakynge, but thene shall we se face to face. Nowe I knowe 
unparfaitly ; but thene shall I knowe even as I am knowen." 

And in 1586, " For nowe we see thro a glasse darkley ; but then 
face to face ; now I know in part but then shal I know even as I 
am knowen." 

When, which, or what time, wha.icht-anne, what time or period. 

Often, oft-time, oft-enne or anne, frequent periods. 

There, that area, spot, or place. 

Therefrom, from that cause, reason, fact, as (the same) before 
stated. 

Thereto, to that place. 

Therefore, from that place, or position. 

Thither, to that position, or spot ; here and there ; formerly 
*' hidder and thydder^ Hither and thither. 

Than, ihe-an, that one, that particular thing, fact, circumstance. 
It is often used in making a comparison, to define the particular ob- 
ject with which the comparison is made; as, "You had better change 
than remain in error." Than remain in error, you had better 
changer- " Truth is better than falsehood.'^ That thing, falsehood, 
truth is better. " I rather go than stay." Rather is the compar* 
ative of rath, now obsolete, or nearly so, but often found in the old 
books. It signifies soon, early, quick ; and the comparative rather, 
means sooner, earlier,. " Than stay, I rather go." " This book is 
heavier than that knife," than, the one, that one knife, the book is 
heavier. '• Art thou greater than he ? " Thou art wiser than I." 

There-at, at that place, 
9* 



98 ETYMOLOGY, 

There about, there-a-bout, a hout or round that place. Tbejr 
went ten houts in a day. 

** I'll have a hout with thee." — Shakspeare. 

Where, what area, what place or position, (wha-icht-area) wka- 
it, what, or ivhaJcht, which, area. 

Wherefor, for what cause, on what account, from that place, 
position, or starting point. 

Whereas, the same fact, cause, reason, promise, place or posi- 
tion in the argument, principle or ground of action, " Resolved 
that mhereas,^^ facts being these, the position, starting point, or 
proposition being granted. " Where as^- things are thus and so, 
therefore resolved that in view of such things we will do so or so. 

Whither, to which, what or that place. ** Go not forth thence 
any whither." — 1 Kings, 2 : 36. 

Whether, which either, *' Whether of them twain did the will of 
his father V'—Matt, 21 : 31. 

Whereabout, a bout what place. 

While is the round or period in which something is whiled, 
whirled, tvheeled, or turned round. It was formerly extensively 
used in the plural, as, 

♦* Other whiles (times) the famished English, like pale ghosts. 
That walked about me every minuie-ivhile."' 

" Thou shalt not die whiles" — Shakspeare. 

" Stand here while (during the time) I go yonder." 

Till, to while, to the time. This word at one time was impro- 
perly applied to place, as well as time ; as, " He went till London ;*' 
♦* down till the bottom." 

Ward, is extensively compounded with other words. It origin- 
ally signified a look, view, watch ; and by a natural change, to 
guard, to protect, watch over ; and hence the thing watched over ; 
as, a minor, a garrison, a district. The guardian takes charge of 
his ward. " There are fifteen wards in New- York ;" that is, par- 
ticular districts under the charge of aldermen. 

To-WARD. Formerly, the noun to which the* look, view, or at. 
tention was directed intervened ; as, " to you ward,'" " to God 
ward,''* to us ward. 



CONTRACTIONS. 99 

Forward, fore-ward, back-ward, home-ward, hence-for-ward, thith- 
er- ward, etc. can all be understood without further explanation. 

Whither so-EVER, which-way-so-ever, not-with-standing, etc. need 
only be disjointed and examined apart to see what they mean, where 
they belong, and how they are put together. 

Never-the-less, is an inverted phrase ; less, leave out the never ^ 
the idea of negation ; as, ** We expected to lose it ; never-the-less^ 
{less, leave out our expectations,) we persevered and saved it." 

NoT-wiTH-sTANDiNG. " He pursucd his journey, not-vnth-stand^ 
ing (not, negation, standing with the fact,) the snow was very deep.'* 

These hints will suffice to show the learner the method of study* 
ing these words ; and in pursuing them, he may find these sugges- 
tions of some service. 

5. Man, in common with other animals, makes indistinct 
utterances to express joy, sorrow, pain, fear, agony, sur- 
prise, anxiety, etc., and letters are combined to represent 
them ; as, O, ah, aha, ha, ho, soho, whew, bah, eh, heigho, 
hey, hum, hick-up, boo, coop, tush, whist, tut ; do, ra, me, fa, 
sol, la, se. 

As no distinct ideas are represented by these sounds, it comes not 
within the range of grammar to attempt their explanation. Brute 
creatures can use such language as well as intellectual man ; and 
we can as well represent the connexion between the *^how, wow, 
wow,'''' of the dog, the " quack, quack, quack,''^ of the duck, and the 
** hiss, siss, s^55," of the goose, as betv/een such discordant shrieks, 
cries, bursts of anguish, lamentation, or laughter. 

Hunian beings may amuse themselves with the meariing of the 
croaking of frogs, the cawing of the jackdaw, the gobbling of tur- 
keys, the mewing of cats, the neighing of horses ; and all the in- 
termediate sounds from the buzz of the bee, or the song of the mus- 
keto, to the rolling of thunder, or the bursting of an earthquake ; 
but in point of articulate and verbal expression to represent ideas, 
they will be found less meaning than the *' prating of fools." 

These inarticulate utterances may be denominated " inter-jec^ 
tions," or owfer-jections ; but such denomination will be of little eer^ 



100 ' ETYMOLOGY^ 

vice, until they are proved to be significant of ideas. That done, 
they will fall in " rank and file," with other significant signs, and 
will sustain their proper relation in the construction of sentences. 
Standing as they do, the mere representations of feelings, instead of 
ideas, they need no explanation. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IX„ 

1* What are contractions ? 

What occurs in the use of language ? 

What is necessary to a clear definition of these words ? 

2. How do many of these words end ? 

3. What is the meaning of ly 1 

Is like ever retained ? 

What do birds sing ? What is their singing like 7 

4. To what do contractions refer-? 

What is the meaning of And 7 As ? So ? Also 7 For ? How? 

Teachers can question their scholars upon the meaning of all 
words which occur in the above list, and such others as may occur 
to their minds, or with which they may meet. They will find this 
course far preferable to that which learns scholars to arrange words 
into classes without knowing their true signification, calling them 
"adverbial phrases," or any thing else. If teachers and learners are 
not able to explain all these contractions, they may comfort them- 
selves with the consideration that no other system of exposition 
attempts to explain their true character. 



SYNTAXe, 101 



CHAPTER X, 



SYNTAX, 

1 . Syntax teaches the proper arrangment of words into 
sentences. 

2. A sentence is a collection of words so arranged as to 
express an idea ; as, I am ; he learns ; boys fly their kites, 

3. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound, 

4. A simple sentence expresses a distinct idea of a single 
fact. It has an agent, action, and object, expressed or im- 
plied ; as, scholars learn lessons ; " Love worketh no ill." 

5. A compound sentence expresses two or more simple 
or distinct ideas. It is formed by the addition of two or 
more simple sentences ; as, William recited his lesson, and 
went home ; "Ignorance produces vice, misery and shame." 

Most ideas are complex ; that is, by the habit of association, W6 
form ideas of one thing in relation to others, or as subject to numer- 
ous influences of connexion, separation, attraction, repulsion, etc. 
Few things are seen distinct. It is no indifferent task to reduce 
matter to its primary parts. 

So far as language is understood and employed, it is adapted to 
the use" of reasonable beings, to express such ideas as they have. 
Hence, if we say horse, we mean a single animal, and express our 
idea of it, as a whole. We may also speak of each part separately ; 
of the hair, skin, flesh, muscles, sinews, blood and bones : of the 
head, neck, body, ears, eyes, nose, shoulders, and legs. So we speak 
of an ocean, a sea, a gulf, a bay, an inlet, a river, lake, pond, pool, 
spring, and drop, signifying the proportions of the fluid mass, with- 
out hinting at the qualities or properties of water, any farther than 
the mere name of water expresses them. 



102 SYNTAX. 

So far as the construction of language for the communication of 
ideas is concerned, it is immaterial whether all these things are 
understood or not. The boy who knows nothing of the anatomy 
of a horse, can express as distinctly the fact with which he has 
become acquainted, ''the horse runs," as the physiologist, who traces 
into the more minute power, cause, and means of such fact. The 
man who has never seen an ocean, can talk of " its rolling billows, 
and dashing waves." 

When it is said, as in the example above, " He learns," the idea 
is single and distinct, as to the fact, but it includes also the idea 
that he has the capacity, 7?ieans, and inclination to do so, and ac- 
tually applies them to produce what we denominate learning. The 
knowledge of such fact is gained only by observing the effect pro- 
duced, the thing learned, or the advances made in learning. 

By a simple sentence, we mean the distinctexpression of a single 
fact ; and by a compound sentence, the conjunction of two or more 
such facts together. 

6. A clause is one part of a compound sentence ; as, 
" Life is short, therefore, we ought to improve it." 

7. A phrase is a specified portion of a sentence, separa- 
ted in mind or in fact, from the rest ; as, " To he consistent, 
you must admit it." 

8. Sentences may be complete or elliptical, 

9. In a complete sentence every word is expressed which 
is necessary to convey the sense ; as, '' Charles, you put 
your hat on your head." "Brethren, you bless every 
thing and you curse nothing." " A writer writes a writ- 
ing on writing paper." 

10. In an elliptical sentence whatever is npturally under- 
stood or easily inferred is not expressed ; as, " Put your 
hat on." " Bless, and curse not." « A writer writes." 

Sentences are generally more or less elliptical. The prevailing 
tendency in the refinement of all languages is to abbreviate, lop off, 
cut down, and clear away, every part and portion which is not act- 
ually indispensable for landmarks to guide other minds in acquiring 
a knowledge of our ideas. 



CONTRACTIONS. 103 

This brevity gives richness, power, and beauty to language. It 
excites the mind of the hearer or reader, because it leaves something 
for him to do, in filling up the ellij>ses. It also saves from that 
tedious and unpleasant prolixity so common in some authors, whoi^e 
works appear to abound with continual redundancy. Good poetry 
is usually very elliptical. 

An other cause of ellipsis is the general difFusion of knovvledge. 
What is understood it is unnecessary to express or explain. Hence 
the writer or speaker presumes much upon the intelligence of his 
readers or hearers, and stops not to define every word, explain ev- 
ery phrase, and illustrate every idea as he goes along. But if he 
treats of a new science, or of a subject not understood, he must ex- 
plain every statement, and every term he adopts, else nobodv v^^ill 
be the wiser for his labors. 

The beauty of writing or speaking is the abundance of good ideas 
expressed in few distinct v*7ords, harmoniously arranged. It i:^ the 
midtum in parvo (much in little) of composition. 

A difficulty attending elliptical sentences is the liability to bo 
mi=5- understood, or not understood at all. If the hearer or reader is 
left to supply the ellipsis, he v/ill, of course, do it according to hia 
own ideas and the information he possesses upon the subject given 
him. 

Ellipsis should never be used except Vv'here it can be easily and 
naturally supplied by the mind of the hearer or reader. In the ex- 
planation of sentences the teacher should instruct his pupils to fill 
up QYQYj sentence that is elliptical. 

11. Sentences may be studied by analysis or synthesis, 

12. Analysis is the resolution of sentences into their pri- 
mary parts, phrases, or words. 

1.3. Synthesis is the compositions of words and phrases 
into sentences. 

In studying the construction of sentences some genernl princi- 
ples may be laid down to guide the learner ; but it is impossible to 
make exceptionless rules for all the forms of i.uman speech ; and 
single rules, with eighteen or twenty exceptions, are wors ■ than no 
rules at all. They only serve to distract and perplex the /earner. 



104 SYNTAX. 

A Rule is ** an instrument by which lines afe drawn." It may 
be correct or incorrect, true or false, right or wrong; but there can 
be no exceptions to it, as some have imagined. If it should be given 
as a rule, that '• every stick is straight," there must be numberless 
exceptions to it, because, in this crooked world, every thing is not 
straight, streg-ht,^ reg-ht, or right. But every reg, reg-le, reg- 
ula or 7'ule, used by the reg-se, rec-se, rek-s, rex, rule man, or rul-er^ 
will produce straight, streg-ht, reg-ht, or right lines, or lines cor- 
responding to itself. When the ruler rules wrong, it is by a mis-rule. 

It may be given as a rule of syntax, that " conjunctions connect 
the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns ;" but it will be necessary to construct other rules to apply 
in cases where such is not the fact ; as, " As it was in the beginning, 
is now, and ever shall fee." *' Who was, and is, and is to come, the 
Almighty." *' I do and will contend." " I will go if I caw." It 
would be far preferable to perplex learners with no such crooked 
and exceptionable rules. 

If it should be given as a rule of geography, that all the rivers in 
the world run south, or even into the ocean, there must, of course, 
be many exceptions, or cases to which such a rule will not apply ; 
for many run in every direction the compass can designate, and 
some of them empty into iw-land seas which have no out-let. 

Some general principles must be observed in the composition of 
all sentences, and it is important that the student should clearly 
understand and carefully observe them. They will form the basis 
upon which he may erect, at his pleasure, a superstructure to suit 
bis own ideas, garnished in all the varieties of form and fashion 
which his judgment or fancy may dictate. 

14. Three general rules should be observed by every 
student of language in the conriposition of sentences. 

1st. Have distinct and definite ideas of the subject of 
thought. 

2d. Choose the best words in the language to express 
such ideas. 

3d. Arrange those words into sentences according to 
the most approved, coniprehensive, and expressive style 
of composition. 

By regarding these principles strictly, and by applying them 



'^This is the correct etymological derivation of this word, as traced 
back thro different periods and languages. 



SYNTAX. 105 

often in practice, the student, if possessed of suitable natural talent, 
will find no difficulty in using language " with propriety." 

Let children study the ideas of correct reasoners, read the 
writings of correct authors, and above all, think correct thoughts 
and use correct icords themselves, and they will find no difficulty 
in making themselves correctly understood by others. 

As they advance in years and knowledge, new fields for improve- 
ment, new subjects for thought, will appear and widen all around 
them, and new forms of speech will give utterance to their ideas, 
in language at once intelligible and easy, beautiful and expressive. 
The profound researches of philosophy, the correct deductions of 
reason, the lucid developements of science, the polished grandeur of 
art, the gilded trappings of imagination, and the deep and imperish- 
able treasures of religion, will all unfold to such minds themes of 
joyous reflection, and motives to continual advancement. 

A few general directions are here given which may be of some 
service to beginners who, having learned to class words according 
to their manner of meaning, desire to compose them into sentences 
and paragraphs for the transmission of their thoughts. 

In making up some directions to be observed in the construction 
of sentences, it has been found impossible to frame a set of Rules, 
as the infallible guides for learners. 

If rules are given for every form of expression, there must be 
as many different rules as there are forms of speech ; and a new 
mould must be constructed for every new cast of expression. 

This course would give an endless variety of rules, which, as 
guides, would be as difficult to be learned and remembered as the 
forms of speech themselves. 

14. ^ SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 

1. Nouns are the agents of verbs or the objects of verbal 
actions ; as, " Jason rowed his hoai along the shore 
during the day,^^ 

Things which stand as the causes without which the action 
would not be performed are agents. Those things which are pro- 
duced or are directly affected by the action are objects. 
10 



106 SYNTAX. 

Every effect must ha\:e a cause, known or unknown, and every 

cause must have an effect, expressed or implied. ^ This rule should 

be regarded in the construction of all sentences. 

- In the usual method of forming sentences, the agent is placed 

before, and the object after the verb ; as, farmers cultivate their lands. 

Sometimes the agent is placed after and the object before the 
verb ; as, *♦ Him slew he, in spite of threat." This transposition 
occurs most frequently in poetry. 

Occasionally, both agent and object stand before the verb ; as^ 
" Me he delivered from prison, and Mm he hanged." 

Sometimes both agent and object come after the verb; as,- 
*' Guards he the camp, to-night ?" This form occurs rarely, except 
in interrogative expressions. 

When the word there takes the lead in the sentence, the agent 
usually follows the verb ; as, " There was a certain man." " There 
lived a man." 

When negation, either certain or probable, is expressed in the 
suppositive form, the verb usually precedes the agent ; as, ** Was I 
in Paris." " Had he known it. Would you be wise." 

2. Two or more nouns, meaning different things, united 
together, are considered as plural in relation to other 
words; as, "Cain and Abel were brothers;" "Simon 
and Andrew were casting their nets into the sea, for 
they were fishermen." 

Two things acting in cpnjuction, yet remaining distinct, or repre- 
sented in their united capacity by words in the plural number, but 
when regarded separately, they are singular ; as, James and John are 
brothers ; they look alike, and each loves the other. 

3. Nouns added together for explanation, or emphasis, 
representing the same thing, remain in the singular 
number, and are regarded in apposition with each other; 
as, " Washington, X\\e friend and defender of American 
liberty, deserves the gratitude of his countrymen." 
" My heart's desire and prayer to God for Israel 25." 
" 7, even / am he, a just God and a Saviour ; there is 
no God before me." 



SYNTAX. 107 

Nouns in apposition do not increase the number of agents, but 
make them more clear and definite. Hence they retain their for- 
mer relations to other words. 

The nouns added for explanation or emphasis take the same rela. 
tions, as the words with which they are in apposition. 

They may be placed before or after the verb ; as, Thou shalt call 
his name John. *' His name was John." " They named him, John.^* 

She walks a queen. He lives a hermit. 

« 

In the sentence '•' she walks a queen/' it should be observed that her 
walking does not make her a queen. Queen is in apposition with she, 
meaning the person who is queen. So hermit is in apposition with he, 
standing for the man. We might say ^' he lives the life of a hermit/' for 
we attach the idea of a particular mode of life to hermit, or rather, it is 
a peculiar mode of living which makes him a hermit. 

" By this lurid light 
Thou look'st a specter." — Talfourd. 

4. Nouns are independent when they are distinct and de- 
tached from any connexion with a verb ; as, " My son, 
give me thy heart." " Mansion House." " The 
school having closed, the scholars went home." 

Nouns are used independent or absolute in five ways. 

1. Personal address ; as, David, bring me that book. ** Our 
Father, who art in heaven." " Listen, my child, to the voice of wis- 
dom." 

2. Titles, labels, mottos, etc. ; as, *' Holy Bible." *' Biographical 
Dictionary." "Crockery and Glass Store." "United States of 
America." " One for all." " Equal Rights." 

3. Detached phrases ; as, " The treaty being concluded, the 
council was dissolved." " The v^eather being fine, we resolved to 
set sail.'^ •* Judas and Silas being prophets also themselves, exhort- 
ed the brethren with many words." The building burnt down, the 
firemen being unable to extinguish it. 

4. Nouns which refer to time, place, distance, value, etc., often 
stand independent of any direct connexion with the sentence ; as, 
** He lived in London, five years ;" " He travelled ten miles every 
day, for a week;" "It is worth fifty dollars." They went home 
yesterday. The house is forty feet high," I read some times, and 
write other times. 



108 SYNTAX, 

Under this principle may be arranged most of the contractions which 
refer to time, manner, and place, but which are nouns in fact, that is, 
stand as the representatives of ideas, tho somewhat compounded and dis- 
guised in their manner of formation. 

5. Ideas expressed by way of emphasis, or exclamation ; as, ** A 
horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse." " The north and the 
south, thou hast created them.'" " Day by day, and night by 
night." " An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." *' Line up- 
on line, precept upon precept, here a little and there a little.'''' 
" Oh the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of 
God." 

6. Nouns ending in ing, which simply name actions, admit ob- 
jects after them the same as the verbs from which they are derived ; 
as, " In forming an opinion on any subject, we should be careful to 
consider every thing which has a bearing upon it." ** By allowing 
this position to be correct, you will perceive that the inference is 
logical." "He was imprisoned for stealing a horse." 

This form of expression is becoming quite common and is gener- 
ally considered correct. The learner should bear in mind that the 
noun in this case is the 7iame given to the action while performing, 
as -was mentioned in the Etymology of Nouns. 

15, SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

1. Pronouns take the same relations in sentences as the 
nouns for which they are used would do in the same 
position ; as, Here is the man of whom I spoke to you* 
Nathan and Henry were away, but they returned be- 
fore we arrived. 

2. Characters not named are often represented by pro- 
nouns in either person or number ; as, " They are 
happy who pursue the paths of virtue." He is wise 
who hears instruction. 

3. A distinct idea embraced in a whole sentence may be 
represented by a pronoun ; as, It is some times con- 
tended that permanence is preferable to improvement ; 
" I have often heard it remarked, that innovation in the 
rules of grammar should be deprecated." 



SYNTAX. 109 

16, SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. Defining and describing adjectives refer to nouns ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, The learned and wise (persons) 
are Mppy. " Many ( ) are called, hwt few ( ) are 
chosen." " Among the living and the dead." 

2. Secondary adjectives refer to other adjectives which 
they are intended to affect ; as, a dearly leloved child : 
a very studious scholar; a very light colored silk 
dress. 

3. Participial adjectives describe nouns in their relations 
to each other, in respect to present or past actions ; 
as, "Joseph is teacning school." The book with a 
cover. 

In the first example, teaching describes Joseph in his present con- 
dition of employment. In the second, {example,) with describes the 
relation existing between hook and cover, which (relation) was pro- 
duced by the act ofwithing, binding, or fastening one to the other, 
or both together. 

4. Adjectives are sometimes implied ; as, '^Daniel would 
be rich if he could have his wish ( .") 

If riches depended on a icish, most people would be rich; for any 
body can " have a wish," by the simple process of wishing it. The 
only difhculty is to have that wish gratified. 

5. Adjectives often refer to whole sentences ; as, " I own 
that (the fact or thing owned, which is to be stated,) 
it would be hetter to know the truth and teach it, than 
to cling to old systems of teaching, merely because 
they are ancient." '^Better is a dinner of herbs where 
love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." 

Better, in this example, does not decribe the dinner, nor the " din- 
-ner of herbs " without the addition of the valuable quality of love 
10* 



110 SYNTAX. 

along with it. Doubtless the persons to whom the proverb was 
given would have preferred the " stalled ox," with a little " hatred,"" 
to a dinner of herbs without " love.''^ 

The fact is, better describes the whole idea of " a dinner of herbs 
with love" and than, {the one, that one,) defines the " stalled ox with 
hatred there," with which the dinner of herbs with love is compared. 

" The battlements, the walls, the columns, the foundations, and 
the very stones themselves were fallen and much effaced.''^ 

17. SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

1. Verbs in the indicatve mood agree with the person and 
number of their agents ; as, He learns his grammar ; 
they read their lesson ; I am here ; we were there. 

Considerable change has taken place in the form of the verb 
within the last two centuries. The third person singular formerly 
ended in eth ; as he loveth, he hath. 

Afterwards the th was dropped in certain cases ; as, " Do this 
and it suffice me." " The Lord recommence thy work, and a full 
reward he given thee." " The Lord grant you that ye may find 
rest." This form of the verb is nearly obsolete. 

The verb agreeing with a noun in the third person singular, gen- 
erally ends in s ; as, he reads, loves, learns. 

2. A phrase, or a complete idea stated at length, often 
stands as the agent of a verb ; as, " To see the sun is 
pleasant." " Whether (which either) we shall go or 
stay is uncertain." " For what purpose the pyramids 
were originally constructed has not been and probably 
will not soon be satisfactorily determined." 

If the idea is single, the verb must be in the singular form ; if 
plural, the verb must take the plural form. 

3. When the agent of the verb includes a multitude, it 
may be regarded as singular when taken as a whole, 
or 'plural in reference to its parts ; as, The army was: 
disbanded. A jury was empannelled ; but they were 
unable to agree. The crew were divided. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

4. When a verb has two or more agents in apposition it 
may agree with the person and number of either, as I 
am the man who teach you, or who teaches you. — I 
teach you, — the man teacher you. 

5. Verbs in the imperative and infinitive mood are 
unchanged in form and future in meaning ; as, " Come 
to me to-morrow." " We are to recite this afternoon." 

In the imperative mood the action signified by the verb is future 
to the direction to do such action ; as, ** Hand me that pen." 

In the infinitive mood the action is future to the circumstance, 
fact, or condition of things upon which it depends; as, *' I have a 
mind to go." 

6. In the imperative mood the agent is not usually ex- 
pressed ; as, " Arise, let us go hence." " Depart in 
peace." " O come, let us worship." 

7. The infinitive mood is generally preceded by the word 
to, but when it follows small words in frequent use, to 
is omitted ; as, I intend to reside here a year ;" I dare 
( ) say so ; I will ( ) return it ; I shall ( ) be 
ofiended ; they feel it ( ) quiver ; you must ( ) 
stay ; you need not ( ) go. 

To is contracted from an obsolete verb, signifying to do^ act, per- 
form, complete.^ It is put before the infinitive mood to distinguish 
between the word expressing action as a verb or noun. For was 
formerly in extensive use before to with which it was sometimes 
compounded ; as, *' I have no gretter ioye iha.nforto heare that my 
sonns walk in vertue. — TyndaWs Test. 

8. The object of the verb is not expresed when easily 
understood ; as, " They toil ( ) not neither do ( ) 
they spin ( .") " Ask ( ) and it shall ( ) be ( ) 

*To and /ro are often contrasted — " from going to and fro, in the earth, 
and from wandering wp and down in it." From, is a changed form of fro. 
-See page 26 Wiclif's Trans. Matt. 13 : 35. 



112 SYNTAX. 

given you, seek ( ) and ye shall ( ) find, ( ) 
knock ( ) and it shall ( ) be ( ) opened to you." 
" I came, ( ) I saw, ( ) I conquered ( .") ** It 
snows." 

It is a prime law of nature, that *' every cause must have an 
effect." Hence, an " intransitive verb" can exist only in imagi- 
nation. With a solitary exception, we never knew this law of 
nature violated, and that was by a suspension of the law, in the case 
of the " burning bush." The bush burned but it was not burned^ a 
cause apparently existed without a corresponding effect. 

The whole mystery of verbal objects is explained by a single re- 
mark. When the object is necessarily implied it is not expressed. 

When we say " it snows, ''^ every school boy knows what we mean, 
that snow is fallen to the ground ; and any person who still adheres 
to his "neuter verb system" may convince himself hy placing Mm^ 
self in the open air during a snow storm. Unless his grammar is 
true, he will find that snow is the direct object of snow-ing, and, 
perhaps to his astonishment, that it never snows without such an 
object, in fact^ and in idea, whether expressed by words or not. 

If to rain, is a *' neuter'''' or *' intransitive verb," umbrellas and 
tight-roofed houses are of little consequence. 

The boy who steps ( ) on the red hot iron will find that his foot 
is burnt, whether steps is parsed as an " intransitive or neuter verb." 

The grammarian who falls ( ) into the the water and sinks ( ) 
or swims, ( ) dies ( ) or lives, ( ) finds, it may be to late, that 
( ) (fact or truth) to sink, drown, and die, have effects quite dif. 
ferent from swim and live, whether expressed or omitted. 

9. The whole member of a sentence, or an idea stated in 
full, is often the object of the verb; as, " I wrote to him 
that (fact, word, writing, or letter) I should be there in 
season to see him before his departure." " They voted 
that (vote) it is expedient to raise $10,000 for the 
support of Grammar schools." 

The object of verbs were more generally expressed formerly than 
at present, as any person may learn by reading the Bible and other 
old books. " He vowed a vow ;" " Sinned a sin ;" " Say me not 



SYNTAX. 113 

may ;" *' Gave a gift ;'' " Dreamed a dream ;*' *' Sung a song," are 
terms with which we often meet, the correctness of which no body 
will question. But complete sentences are not so fashionably ele- 
gant as those which are more elliptical. 

18. SYNTAX OF CONTRACTIONS. 

No better direction can be given for the use af Contrac- 
tions than to direct the learner to be careful and ascertain 
their true meaning, and so dispose them as to present that 
meaning in the most clear and forcible manner."^ 

When it shall be known what all these words mean, and how they 
are formed, then it will be easy enough to arrange them correctly, 
whether we have arbitrary rules or not ; however ijuportant such 
rules may be considered by some, and even indispensable by others. 



QUESTIONS ON CHATPER X, 

1. What dees Syntax teach? 

. 2. What is a sentence ? 

3. Of how many kinds ? 

4. What does a simple sentence express ! 

5. What is a compound sentence ? 

Are most ideas simple or compound ? 

6. What is a clause ? 

7. What is a phrase ? 

8. What is a complete sentence 1 

9. What is an elliptical sentence ? 

Are sentences often elliptical ? 

What does this brevity give to language ? 



*The author hopes to be excused for the suggestion here made, and 
the manner of making it. He seriously believes it is the best rule whicfc 
can be constructed for the use of these words. 



114 SYNTAX. 

What is an other cause of ellipsis ? 
What adds to the beauty of writing ? 
What difficulty attends ellipsis ? 
When should ellipsis be used ? 

10. How may sentences be studied? 

11. What is analysis ? 

12. What is synthesis ? 

13. What general rules should be observed in the com- 
position of words into sentences ? 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 

14. 1. What is the first principle to be observed in the 
use of nouns? 

In forming sentences where is the agent and object usually placed? 
In what other situations do they occur ? 

2. What is the second principle ? 

3. What is the third ? 

Do nouns in apposition increase the number ? 
What relations do they take ? 
How may they be placed ? 

4. What is the fourth ? 1st? 2d? 3d? 4th? 

5. What is the fifth ? 

6. W^hat is the sixth ? 

15. 1. What relations do pronouns take ? 

2. Do they ever stand for nouns not named ? 

3. How may a distinct idea represented by a sentence be 

expressed ? 

16. 1. To what do defining and describing adjectives 
refer ? 

2. To what do secondary adjectives refer ? 

3. What do participial adjectives describe ? 

4. Are adjectives ever implied? 

5. To what do they sometimes refer ? 

17. 1. With what do verbs agree ? 
2. Is a phrase ever agent of a verb ? 



SYNTAX. 115 

3. How may a noun of multitude be considered ? 

4. When the verb has two or more agents in apposition, 

with which does it agree ? 

5. How are verbs in the imperative and infinitive moods 

considered ? 

6. Is the agent usually expressed in the imperative mood ? 

7. By what is the infinitive mood usually preceded ? 

8. Are the objects of verbs always expressed? 

9. What is often the object of the verb ? 

Are objects of verbs as frequently expressed now as formerly ? 

18. What direction is it best to observe in the use of con- 
tractions ? 



I W FBOSODY. 

CHAPTER XL 
PROSODY. 

1. Prosody relates to the quantity of syllables, words^ 
and sentences, and the manner of their pronunciation. It 
applies specially to poetry. 

2. Its object is to teach the proper arrangement of letters^ 
syllables, and words, into sentences to produce harmony. 

Prosody regards both^rose and poetry ; but the former less di- 
rectly than the latter. Pi-ose is tolerable if the laws of Prosody are 
infringed : poetry i& insufferable. Prosody regards more directly 
the plain matter of fact : poetry, the style of composition. 

One person may express His ideas in language strictly grammat- 
ical and very significant, but exceedingly inharmonious, harsh, and 
grating to the ear. An other, with words less expressive, and ideas 
less vivid and less correct, pleases us with the purity of his style,, 
and the harmony of his sentences.. 

It is the business of Pi'osody to teach the logician and etymolo^ 
gist to clothe his ideas in words and sentences of suitable lengthr 
divided hy suit^hle pauses ; and the orator to express them with- 
proper accent, empJtasts, and cadence, to give clearness, power, and 
harmony ; to intere&t, please, and improve the hearer. 

Some writers have much more real harmony in their prose, than 
others have in their poetry, or what is called poetry. 

3. Prosody includes the quantity and accent of letters and 
syllables ; the emphasis of words ; the punctuation of sen- 
tences, and the division of chapters and sections into para- 
graphs. 

It includes the whole arrangement of language in respect to per- 
spicuity, harmony, and versification. It may also mclude utterance^ 
pronunciation, and elocutione 



PROSODY. 



117 



" Accent, emphasis, pause, and tone," are treated at large in 
most primary school books, and, so far as arbitrary rules are con- 
cerned, are well enough understood. More practical knowledge 
might be of service. 

4. Punctuation relates to the division of composition by 
marks or points^ to show the meaning and relation of words 
and phrases, and to direct the reader what pauses and inflec- 
tions of voice are required to givQ a distinct expression of 
the writer's sentiments. 

5. The marks commonly employed are the Comma [ , ], 
Semicolon [ ; ], Colon [ : ], Period [ . ], Dash [ — ], Mark 
of Interrogation [ ? ], Mark of Exclamation [ ! ], and Paren- 
thesis [ ( ) ]> or Brackets [ [ ] ]• These are the only marks 
which materially affect the harmony of sentences. 

Several other marks are used in language, such as the apostro- 
phe [ ' ], hyphen [- ], diaresis [ •• ], accents [ / » ^ ], hreve ['^J, ellip- 
sis [— , * * * ], macron [ — ], brace [ '^-^-^ ], caret [ a ], section [ § ], 
paragraph [ IF ], marks of quotation [ " " ], index [O"], asterisk 
[* ], obelisk [ t ], double obelisk [ \ ], parallels [ || ], letters [ «> ^' c, j^ 
'and. figures [^2, s^j. 

Punctuation is a modern improvement. It was not adopted to any 
great extent till the 15th century, except in reference to delivery. I'lu 
works w^ritten previous to that time, and in some of later date, few marks^ 
of punctuation are found. 

In punctuation, as well as in every thing else which is subject to 
change and improvement, no fixed '* rules'''' can be given to direct 
the learner : if given, they would only serve to perplex and re- 
tard his progress. He would be obliged to " find out the right of 
the case with out the rule, and then fit his rule to it." 

Among the best writers, no two persons can be found who, tho 
they adopt the same general theory, agree in the practical applica- 
tion of Punctuation, and the same writer often disagrees with him- 
self. Nor could it be expected to be otherwise, when we consider 
the vast variety of forms of expression employed to represent the 
same or similar idea«, 
11 



118 PROSODY. 

The following definitions of the marks of Punctuation are pre- 
sented for the consideration of the student. They may be of some 
service to him. But, in composition, he is requested to rely more 
upon his own judgement, and a careful observation of good writing, 
than upon any arbitrary rules which may be framed. 

6. The Comma notes the shortest pause, a brief suspen- 
sion of the voice, without any change ia the sense ; as, 
" Days, months, and years, fly swift away." " In the 
christian's life, love, hope, and joy, predominate over sin, 
hate, and sorrow." 

7. The Semi-colon denotes a longer pause than a comma, 
and is used to separate compound sentences in which the 
sense is nearly connected ; as, " Trust in the Lord at all 
times ; and lean not to thine own understanding." "Hear^ 
O my son, and receive my saying ; and the years of thy 
life shall be many." 

8. The Colon is used in compound sentences when the 
sense in each member is distinct, but both are to be taken 
in connexion. It requires a longer pause than a semicolon ; 
as, " My son, forget not my laws ; but let thine heart keep 
my commandments : for length of days, and long life, and 
peace, shall they add to thee." " My son, let them not de- 
part from thine eyes : keep sound wisdom, and discretion." 
*' Turn not to the right hand nor the left : remove thy feet 
from evil." 

9. The Period marks the full stop, or the end of a sen- 
tence, simple or compound ; and an entire cessation of the 
voice ; as, " Honor all men. Love the brotherhood. Fear 
God. Honor the king." " Prove all things : hold fast that 
which is good." 

10. The Dash marks a sudden interruption of the sense, 
and a suspension of voice of variable length ; as, 

it »T is vain to struggle — let me perish young — 
Live as I lived, and love as I have loved." — Byron. 



PROSODY. 119 

11. The Mark of Interrogation is used when a question 
is asked ; as, 

** Can gold gain friendship ?" 
*' Art thou come, so soon ?" 

12. The Mark of Exclamation denotes a feeling of sur- 
prise, or a strong enaotion of the mind ; as, 

*' Star of the brave ! thy ray is pale, 
And darkness must again prevail ! " 

" From thee, O Press ! what blessings flow 
'T unworthy mortals here below I" 

13. The Parenthesis includes a word or sentence, thrown 
in for the sake of explanation ; as, 

*• Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

It is needless to explain, in this place, the other marks employed 
in punctuation ; or to make any remarks upon the principles of 
Elocution, or the lav/s of Versification. These are subjects not 
strictly connected with Grammar. They belong more properly to 
Rhetoric. 

The best direction that can be given to students, in reference to 
Syntax and^Prosody, is to advise them to read the works of good 
authors, carefully observe their ideas and manner of expressing 
them ; rigidly guard their own minds from ignorance and error ; 
seduously improve every means to gain a knowledge of things ; and 
wisely adopt the simplest and most expressive forms of language 
as signs-of their ideas. 

They should, however, religiously avoid every approach towards 
an imitation of an other's style of composition. They should keep 
their minds free to think, deduce, decide, adopt, and improve. 
They will then have ideas of their own, properly arranged, accord- 
ing to the principles which govern matter and mind ; and will find 
little difficulty in expressing them in a style, at once, "clear, distinct, 
comprehensive, and beautiful. 



120 PROSODY, 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XL 

1. To wba* does Prosody relate ? 

2. What is its object ? 

What does it regard ? 

How can different persons express their ideas ? 

What is the business of Prosody ? 

3. What does Prosody include ? 

4. To what does Punctuation relate ? 

5. W^hat marks are conamonly employed ? 

What others ? 

Can arbitrary rules be given to guide the learner ? 
Do good writers always agree in their punctuation ? 

6. What does the Comma note ? 

7. What does the Semicolon denote ? 

8. When is the Colon used ? 

9. What does the Period mark ? 

10. What does the Dash ? 

11. When is the Mark of Interrogation used t 

12. What does the Mark of Exclamation denote 1 

13. What does the Parenthesis include ? 

What is the best direction for students in reference to Syntax 
ajid Prosody ? 



PARSING. 121 



CHAPTER XII. 



PARSING. 

1. Parsing* is the resolution of sentences into their ele- 
ments, phrases, words, or letters, according to the princi- 
ples of grannnaatical construction. 

In the study of language, it names the process of dividing, sepa- 
rating, dissecting, or analyzing sentences to ascertain the meaning 
and classification of each word and the relation of words in the for- 
mation of sentences. 

2. It may be considered in reference to Etymology or 
Syntax. 

Words may be studied singly or in connexion. Etymology re- 
gards words ; Syntax, sentences. Hence, in parsing, the student 
should observe distinctly the form, changes, and meaning of each 
word, and its use and location in the construction of sentences. 

The examples and lessons given below may assist the learner in 
his endeavors to study language etymologically and syntactically. 
By strictly observing the composition of different sentences, he will 
readily acquire a habit of correct expression in speaking and writing 
the ideas which he wishes to communicate to others. 

It is however desired that scholars may not consider the object of 
their study accomplished when they have learned to construe sen- 
tences according to the examples here given. They should acquire 
a habit of close observation, clear thought, and free action, which 
will enable them to gain correct views of the principles and con- 
struction of language, and employ it with ease and perspicuity. 

The authority relied on in the explanation of sentences should be 

^Parsing, from the Latin pars, signifies to divide, or separate into parts. 
11* 



122 PARSING. 

the facts in the case, the essential principles involved, and the best 
usages of authors. Mere arbitrary rules are poor authority, no mat» 
ter how popular the author or his book may be. 

On the plan here suggested, the study of grammar will not be 
" dull, or profitless," nor will its advantages be forgotten on leaving 
the school room and closing the grammar book. It v/ill enable a 
person to observe the peculiarity of meaning and construction of 
every sentence he reads, from his childhood to advanced age ; to 
adopt every improvement, and reject every error he may encounter 
in the whole course of his reading and conversation. 

EXAMPLES 

OF ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

" Good children obey the expressed wishes of their 
teachers." 

Goodf is a describing adjective, refering to children. [No. 1. ^S*^?*- 
tax of adjectives.] 

children, is a common noun, third person, plural number ; it may 
be masculine or feminine gender ; and is agent of obey. 
[No. 1. Syntax of nouns.] 

obey, is a regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees 
with its agent, children, in the third person, plural num- 
ber. [No. 1. Syntax of verbs.] 

the, is a defining adjective, refering to wishes. 

expressed, is a describing adjective, refering to wishes. 

wishes, is a common noun, third person, plural number, and object 
of obey. 

of, is a participial adjective, describing wishes, by relation with 
teachers. [No. 3. Syntax of adjectives.] 

their, is a defining adjective, refering to teachers, by personal re- 
lation to children. 

teachers, is a common noun, third person, plural number, and Ob- 
ject after o/. [No. 1. Syntax of nouns.] 

" Virtue ennobles us." 

" The teacher instructs his pupils in grammar." 

" A part of the rock fell into the water." 



FARSING., 123 

^, denning adjective, refering to part, 

part, common noun, third person, singular number, agent offelL 

of, participial adjective, describing part, in relation to the rock, 
from which it was parted, {puffed,) or separated, 

the, defining adjective, refering to roch, 

rock, common noun, object after of, 

fell, irregular verb, indicative mood, past tense, agreeing with its 
agent, part, in the third person, singular number. 

into, participial adjective, describing the object of fell, by its rela- 
tion to the water. It was the fallen part, and not the part 
before it was fallen, which v/as into the water. If there is 
no object after fell necessarily implied, then there can be 
nothing fallen into the water. The relation described by 
into exists between the fallen part ojad. the water, 

the, defining adjective, refering to water. The is not very definite 
in this case, because it refers to a mass in general, and not 
to a portion of water in particular. 

water, common noun, object aftet into. 

Remarks. In the examples here given, the peculiar form of expres- 
sion is frequently varied. The object is to offer such explanations as 
may be necessary to guide the learner in the practical adoption of the 
principles contained in this work. 

Teachers will do well to learn young scholars to distinguish particu- 
larly the person, number, gender, (where it exists,) and position of nounsj 
the kind of adjective, and the raood and tense of verbs, It mig-ht be well, 
perhaps, to teach them to attend to the principles of syntax, under which 
the words are arranged. But they should always bear in mind that these 
are guides to direct, rather than rules to govern, in the formation of sen- 
tences. 

Teachers who are acquainted with former systems of exposition, are ' 
requested to parse these examples both ways, and candidly decide which 
method affords the clearest and truest view of the meaning and construc- 
tion of the words and sentences j and v/hich can be best understood by 
children. 

" Ainii and Ardan, valiant sons of Ulna, were at the ban- 
quet. 

Ainli, proper noun, third person, singular number, masculine gen- 
der, agent oficere. 



124 PARSING. 

and, an adjective describing the connexion between Ainli and 

Ardan. 
Ardauj proper noun, connected to Ainli and agent of were. (No. 

2. Syntax of nouns.) 
valianti describing adjective refering to sons, 
sons, common noun, plural number, in apposition with Ainli and 

Ardan, and also agent of were. (No. 3. Syntax of nouns.) 
of participial adjective, describing sons, by relation to Ulna, their 

father. 
Ulna, proper noun, object after of. 
were, an irregular verb, indicative mood, past tense, and agrees 

with Ainli and Ardan, which together are in the third per- 

son, plural number, 
c?, participial adjective, describing Ainli and Ardan in relation to 

the banquet. 
fAe, defining adjective refering to banquet, 
banquet, common noun, object after at. 

" Washington and Lafayette were friends during the war 
of the Revolution." 

Friends, common noun, plural, in apposition with Washington and 
Lafayette. 

" ' Forbear, my son,' the hermit cries." 

Forbear, an irregular verb, imperative mood, having an agent un- 
derstood in the second person. (No. 5, and 6. Syntax of 
verbs.) 

myy defining adjective refering to sou. 

5071, common noun, second person, singular, used independent of 
the rest of the sentence. . (No. 4. Syntax of nouns.) 

cries, a regular verb, indicative mood, present tense, agreeing with 
hermit. *' Forbear, my son," is the object of cries. *' The 
hermit cries ;" what ? *' Forbear, my son." 

*' The senate adjourned, having closed its business." 

Having, participial adjective, describing senate, in regard to its con- 
dition at the time of adjournment. 
closed, describing adjective refering to business, 
its, defining adjective refering to business, 
business, common noun, object after having. [No.4. Syn. of nouns.] 



PARSING. 125 

The doors being closed, the house held a secret session. 
The house sat with dosed doors. 

Doors, in the first exainple, is used independant, the phrase being 
detached from the sentence. [No, 4. — 3. Syntax of nouns,] 

" Give us this day our daily bread." 

Give, irregular verb, imperative mood. 

day, common noun, used independant. [No. 4. — 4. Syntax of 
nouns.] 

" A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse." 

"By heeding wholesome advice, he soon improved." 

By, participial adjective, shovving the relation between the object 
of itaproved, and heeding > " He improved himself, hh 
habits, or manners, hy heeding,^'' ^c. 

heeding, a noun, naming the action, and object after hy. 

advice, noun, object of A ee<^m^. [No. 6. Syntax of nouns.] 

mon, adjective, refering to a noun understood, time ; — soon, sooner, 
soonest. 

" Their operations ar« right only when they act in har- 
mony with each other, enlightened intellect and moral sen- 
iiment holding the supremacy." — Combe, 

" Some people imagine tJiai having one duty accomplished, 
they have nothing more to do." 

That, defining adjective, refering to the sentence, or idea written 
out, "they have nothing more to do." Some people im- 
agine that fact, idea, notion, or imagination — " they have 
^ nothmg more to do." 

having, participial adjective, refering to people. 

^accomplished, describing adjective, refering to duty. 

to do, an irregular verb, infinitive mcod, depending upon the former 
idea, " they have nothing." 

''I will visit you if I can find leisure." 

Will, an irregular verb, indicative mood, present tense. It agrees 
with /, in the first person, singular number. It signifies 
present inclination, purpose, intention, or desire. 



126 PARSING. 

visit, a regular verb, infinitive mood, consequent upon will, and fa- 

ture to it. 
//, a verb, imperative mood ; admit, allow, grant, suppose. It has 

the sentence following for its object — grant, allow, suppose, 

admit the fact, idea, or supposition, *« / can find leisure J*^ 
can, an irregular verb, indicative mood, present tense, etc. 
find, a verb in the infinitive mood, consequent upon can, and future 

to it. 

" Thou art, and wast, and art io come, the Almighty." 
" He lives in time past, present, and to come.^^ 
" And if ye will receive it, this is Elias, which was for 
to come:'— Matt. 11 : 14. 

And, an adjective used to signify that the idea following, is joined 
or associated to the preceding. 

this, defining adjective, refering to man, or person understood. 

ichich, adjective, refering to Elias. 

for. This method of expression was formerly very common. It is 
now nearly obsolete. For is a participial adjective ex- 
pressing the relation between the promised and expected 
Elias and his coming. The circumstances attending the 
promise of Elias were such as to give force, or assurance 
of his coming. He was for, forced, in the very order, or 
nature of things, as they existed after the promise was 
given ; hj force of such promise " he was to come." 

" No man knoweth the Son lut the Father ; neither 
knoweth any man the Father, save the Son, and he to whom- 
soever the son will reveal him." — Matt, 11 : 27. 

But, a verb in the imperative mood, signifying he out, leave out, 

save, or except. 
Father, noun, object of &2i if. 
neither, defining adjective refering to the succeeding sentence — 

*' Knoweth any man the Father." It is compounded of 

ne, signifying not, negation, and either, 
save, a verb, in the imperative mood, the same as hut, except, or 

omit, 
son, noun, the object of save. 



PARSING. 127 

"I determined to know nothing among you, save Christ 
and him crucified,^^ 

" He will be present unless he is detained," 

Be^ an irregular verb, infinitive mood after will, and future to it. 

present, describing adjective, refering to he. 

unless, verb, imperative mood, agreeing with an agent understood. 
The reader or hearer is required to unless, release, unloose, 
set free, the idea — '* he is detained," then it may be consid- 
ered certain, "he will be here." 

detained, describing adjective, refering to he. 

" The farm is well wooded and watered.^^ 

*' She is learned, wise, and virtuous ; and, of course., 
Jiappy and heloved.^^ 

" Penelope is loved, because she is lovely. She is respect- 
ful to her superiors, and loved by all who know her." 

" Thunder is heard by me, and the lightning was seen by 
him." 

" The Almighty is exalted on high. He is surrounded 
by the heavenly hosts, who are constantly dependant upon 
him. He is powerful and good, merciful and just. He is 
praised by the host of heaven, and honored by all who keep 
his commandments." 

" And when he was departed thence, he went into thefr 
synagogue." 

When, a contraction, meaning at which, or the, time. 

departed, an adjective, refering to he. 

thence, a contraction, from that place, or spot. 

" But and if that evil servant shall say in his heart, My 
lord delayeth his coming ; and shall begin to smite his fel- 
low servants, and to eat ( ) and drink ( ) with the 
drunken ; the loi-d of that servant shall come," etc. — Matt. 
24 : 48, 50. 



ISB PARSING. V 

But, a verb, imperative mood, used to direct the listener to add" oir 
connect the facts and consequences about to be stated. 

and, an adjective, describing the connexion between hut and if. 

if, verb, imperative mood, allow, grant. The Savior had described 
the conduct and condition of " 2. faithful and wise servant;^' 
and now, by contrast, directs his hearers to add or superadd 
the case of an " evil servant." To make his illustration 
more clear, he directs them not only to add the whole fact 
to be related, but (add) also, to allow, grant, admit, or sup, 
pose that (fact) — " he shall say in his heart, my lord delay- 
eth his coming o" Then the consequence will follow — " the 
lord of that servant shall come in an hour when he looketh 
not for him." " But and if,^' add and allow, or suppose ; add 
the case of the evil servant to that of the faithful and wise 
servant, and allbiv the conditional part, " he shall say," &c. 

shall, an irregular verb, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees 
with servant, in the third person, singular. 

say, an irregular verb, infinitive mood after shall. 

in, a participial adjective^ describing the object of say, — '* My lord 
delayeth his coming," — the thing said, or the said thing — in 
relation to heart ; say the saying in his heart. 

begin, a verb, infinitive mood. The object of begin is not ex^ 
pressed by a single word- — " shall begin (the work or action) 
to smite, eat, and drink.'''* 

eat and drink, verbs, infinitive mood, and consequent upon begin,. 
to which they are future. He could neither eat nor drinks 
* till he began to do so (the same.) The objects of eat and 

drink are implied — probably the luxuries of his lord, and the 
liquors which made " drunken.'''' — If they ate and drank 
intransitively, it is questionable whether they w^ould be 
«* drunken." 

" He called the next day and was received with much 
cordiality. Fie seemed truly grateful for the timely aid 
he had rendered her — and it is well known that gratitude 
is akin to love." 

well, secondary adjective, refering to known. 

known, participle from the verb to know, used as an adjective tc 
describe it<. 



PARSING* 129 

tkat^ defining adjective refering to the sentence, " gratitude is akin 
to love." It, that fact, is a well known fact, 

akin, formerly a noun, a kin, or kindred. It is used as an adjective 
describing gratitude, 

" Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do 
ye even so unto them." 

" Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." 

Whatsoever, is a defining adjective, refering to a noun understood ; 
whatsoever act, duty, work, 

ye, pronoun, second person, plural, agent of would. 

would, a verb, indicative mood, past tense, suppositive form, agree- 
ing with ye, in the second person, plural number. 

that, defining adjective, refering to thing, fact, deed, or a similar 
noun implied. 

do, is a verb, infinitive mood, depending on should. 

unto, participial adjective, expressing the relation between the ob- 
ject of do (deed, work, act,) and you. 

even, an adjective, describing the thing desired, would, or wished, 
and the thing to he done ; one should be even compared with 
the other. 

so, an adjective, the same, refering to a noun implied — do so, the 
same thing unto them. 

** I had finished my work before he arrived.'^ 

" He arrived before I had my work finished.^' 

** There was a man which had Wis hand wither ed,^^ — 

Matth. 12 : 10. 

" A bruised reed shall he not break : and smoking flax 

shall he not quench, till he send [5] forth judgment unto 

victory." 

*' JBe active, persevere, and you will certainly conquer." 
" Live ( ) peaceably, think ( ) maturely, act wisely, 

and you will be happy." 

" Great Pompey's shade complains that we are slow, and 

Scipio's ghost walks unrevenged among ms,^^ -Addison^ sCato. 
12 



130 PARSING. 

Great, secondary adjective refering to Pompey*s. (No. 2. Syntax 

of adjectives.) 
Pompey''s, defining adjective refering to shade. 
shade, common noun, agent of complains. 
complains, a regular verb, etc. 
that, defining adjective, refering to the following, sentence, " we are 

slow,^^ — complains, or makes that complaint — "we are 

slow." 
we, pronoun, first person, plural, agent of are, standing for the 

speaker, Sempronius, and those who heard him. 
are, an irregular verb, etc. 
slow, describing adjective refering to we, 
and, a contraction, or properly, an adjective, describing the fact 

related in the last sentence as connected with the former. 

The writer has joined, oned, added, the two facts, and 

wishes them to be so considered. 
Scipio's, defining adjective, designating what ghost is meant. 
ghost, noun, agent of v/alks. 

unrevenged, describing adjective refering to ghost. 
among, participial adjective describing the object of walk, in rela- 
tion to the speaker and hearers, the people of Rome — in 

reference to place. The walks of the ghost are among us, 

in our midst, 
us, pronoun, first person, plural number, and object after among. 

" He took him out, (of confinement,) carried him away^ 
and left him happy and contented with his friend.'' 

He was happy. He was absent. He was out. He was in. 
He is above. He is afar. He is near. He is on. He is over. He 
is opposite. He is across. He is adjacent. He is along side. He 
is after. It is up. It is low. It is high. It is down. 

Formerly, a was used before many of these words. He is a-going. 
They are a working. It is c-down. They are a-mong. It \» 
a- way. 

" Twenty years ago, he resided in this place. 
ago, a describing adjective, from the verb go, or ago ; it describes 
years ; twenty years agone, past, spent, gone by. The phrase 
stands independent. 



PARSING, 



131 



" The Lord went before them by day in a pillar of cloud 
to lead them the "way : and by night in a pillar of fire to 
give the7?i light ; to go by day and night : He took not 
mcaij the pillar /rom before the people." 

" Paul said ( ) to the centurion and to the soldiers, ex- 
cept these ( ) abide in the ship, ye can not be saved. 
Then the soldiers cut off the ropes of the boat and let her 
fall off.— Acts 27 : 31, 32. 

Except, verb, imperative mood, having the sentence '* these abide 
in the ship" for the object, or thing excepted. 

off, describing adjective, refering to ropes. The off-ox, the ojf-side. 
The boat fell off, dropped down, swung round, 

" He has more than is necessary to make him happy." 

More, adjective, refering to a noun understood — property, wealth, 

money, lands. 
than, defining adjective ; in this case, used as a noun, agent of 2>. 

Some property is necessary to make him happy ; he has moi'e, 

so much, that it is a trouble to him. 

" Hov7 is it that we apply the epithet, lovely^ to any moral 
qualification, hut only in as far as the qualification does in 
fact draw towards it a sentiment of love ? How is it that 
an other qualification is said to be of good report, but (ex- 
cept) in as far as it has received from men an applauding 
or honorable testimony." — -Chalmers, 

How, with what mind, purpose, or intention. How is the old noun 
for mind. It also refers to means, by which the decisions or 
purposes of the mind are executed. How, in what way, hy 
what means, with what mind •' is it." 

lovely, in this case is a noun, naming a quality, in apposition with 
epithet. 

only, a contraction, one like. The way, means, or mind, in, by, or 
with which, " we apply the epithet, *' lovely,""^ is one, is like 
a single proposition. This one method is excepted by hut ; 
hut for this exception, the application of the epithet, lovely 
could not be made. 



132 PARSING. 

iuy participial adjective; describing the relation between the object 
of buty the only means or method, and a noun understood, 
signifying distance, space, condition, or circumstance. 

as, contraction ; properly a defining adjective, refering to a noun 
understood. 

faVy describing adjective refering to the same noun understood, 
distance, space, condition. 

aSy defining adjective refering to the same noun again implied, *' in 
as far (a distance) as (in the same distance, or degree) the 
qualification does draw." 

" And losing itself in the obsurity of as far removed a 
distance as ever." — Chalmers, 

as and/«r, in this example of the same writer, refer to a noun ex- 
pressed. The language is less elliptical than the former. 
removedy describing adjective refering to distance. 
aSy refers to distance implied. 

" And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the tip 
as happens in acute diseases." — Dr. Sweetster. 

indeedy in deed, in fact, in truth. 

seldoTUy adjective refering to a noun implied — time ; or it may bo 
used as a noun independent, including the idea of rare oc- 
currence. 

as, the same happens. It is used in this instance as agent of hap- 
pens, 

" The ground I have assumed, is tenable as will appear." 
— Webster. 

" Bonaparte had a special motive in decorating Paris, for 
* Paris is France,' as has often been observed." — Channing, 

" The words are such as seem." — Lindley Murray, 
decoratingy common noun, naming the action while performing, 

object after in. 
Parisy proper noun, object after decorating. 

foTy participial adjective, describing the relation between the " dec- 
orating of Paris" and the remark, " Paris is France ;" for 
this reason ; by dint, or force of the remark. — *' Paris is 
France." 



PARSING. 133 

"As far (distance) as (the same distance) I have read, I 
approve." 

"He pursued a course so unvarying." — Channing. 

There are not in our language^ two more important words, or two more 
frequently used, and, it might be added, two less correctly explained in 
the books, than as and so. Scholars are little wiser for being told that 
they are '^ adverbial phrases," or '^ conjunctions,'- unless they thereby 
learn their meaning and use. 

Let their importance in the following quotations be carefully observed. 
They are indispensible to make the contrast complete. The sentiment 
can not be learned without knowing their meaning. 

" As by one man, sin entered into the v7orld and death by sin» 
and so death passed upon all men, for all have sinned." 

But not as the offence so also is the free gift * * * *. And not 
as it was by one that sinned, so is the gift * * * *. As by one man's 
disobedience many were made simiers, so by the righteousness, etc. 
That as a sin hath reigned unto death even so might grace reign." 
--Rom. 5 : 12—21. 

*^As is the earthy, such are they also that are earthy, and as is 
the heavenly such are they also that are heavenly ; and as we have 
borne the image of the earthy we shall also bear," &c. — 1 Cor, 
15 : 48. 

" As is the one, so is the other ; each blinds, deludes, and deceives. 
Intemperance and vice have," &c. 

" Hast thou found honey ? eat so much (honey) as is sufficient 
for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it." — Prov. 25 : 16. 

*' Rising too early and setting up too late, injures both 
mind and body." 

" Methinks my v/aning sight grows clear to drink 

The perfect picture of thy beauty in." — Athenian Captive, 

^ "I will not doff my helmet till I yield 

My neck to your slaves' butchery. 

*' And with an arm as rigid and as pale 
As is the giant statue." 

' ' No, lady ; from the fissure of a rock, 
Scathed and alone, mj brief existence gushed, 
A passionate torrent : — Let it not be lost 
In miry sands, but having caught one gleam 
Of loveliaess to grace it, dash from the earth 
To darkness and to silence. Lead me forth." 
II* 



134 PARSING. 

" To the pale shrine of him whose withering shield 
Is dedicate to Athens." 

" It quenched my mortal thirst, and I rejoiced, 
For I seemed grown to demon" 

" Would the solid earth 
Would open, and enfold me in its strong 
And stifling grasp, that I might be as tho 
I ne'er was born." 

As tho, 1 might be as (the same) tho (admit) I ne'er was born. 
ho7'n, a past participle, used as an adjective to describe /, *' As 
neW'horn babes, desire." 

" /f that just deed, 
Which thus disturbs thy fancy, were a crime* 
What is it in the range of glorious acts, 
Past and to come, to which thou art allied. 
But a faint speck, an atom, which no eye 
But thine would dwell on ?" 

'* I saw the wicked buried" before he arrived. I had the letter 
written before he arrived. I had finished*' it before he came. I 
saw it completed before I left. I shall have it finished. It was a 
finished piece of work. '* He may have his head shot off* if he is not 
careful." I must have my lesson learned before school begins. He 
accomplished his task. He perfected^ it (/) 

He hasfinishedX it miserably. He has it half -finished. He has 
it nearly perfect (ed.) He has it quite finished. 

" I gave my heart to know wisdom, and to know folly and 
madness." — Ecch 1: 17. 

'* I said of laughter, It is mad, and of mirth, what doetli 
it ?"_2 : 2. 

'' I made me great works ; I huilded me houses ; I got me 
servants — I gathered me also silver and gold — I was great 
and increased J^^ — 4 : 8. 

" I might have done it." I had might, strength, or abil- 
ity, to have it done, or accomplished. 

" He would have preferred some other creditor." 

^Murray's Example of a '^ Pluperfect tense." '' tim-perfect tense/' 
Y' Perfect tense." 



PARSING. 135 

He wished to prefer some other creditor. 

He desired to have some other preferred creditor. 

" I could have wished he had made a wiser choice." 

There was a time when, from my knowledge of thmgs, my wishes 
were different. But the above sentence supposes that such time is 
past. Prior to his making a choice, I thought I saw a better pros 
pect for him. The expression is in the suppositive form. 

** I would have done your errand if it had occurred to me 
when there." 

This is the suppositive form in which the present negation is ex- 
pressed by putting the verb in the past tense. The fact that the 
errand was not done must be already known. The speaker wishes 
to excuse himself from intended neglect by saying, " I wouldj willed, 
wished^ desired, was willing, to have your errand done^ performed, 
executed, if, allow, admit, suppose, it had occurred tome, when, at 
the time, I was there, in the place previously known," 

" When you visit this city you will have the goodness to 
make my house your home,^^ 

To make, in this example, signifies to construct, not a building, 
but to adopt it for a home. Home is in apposition with house. 

These brief examples will give an idea of the method by which 
sentences may be studied analytically . Teachers can add such 
examples and explanations as they may deem correct and important. 
The author of this work disclaims any intention or wish to fetter 
the min^s of teachers or learners by confining them to a particular 
routine of parsing. On the contrary, he hopes the time is not far 
distant, when the mechanical method of study shall be wholly aboL 
ished, and learners be influenced by reasons instead of arbitrary 
rules and set forms of expression. 

He would also suggest the importance of beginning early to teach 
children the principles of language synthetically . Learn them to 
put their thoughts together correctly, and express them grammati- 
cally. Teach them to compose brief sentences, simple and com- 
pound, and write them on paper. Then let them form short para^ 



13G PARSING. 

graphs and whole chapters. No matter how short their sentenced 
are, provided they are correct. They will soon enough learn to 
make long sentences. 

Proper attention bestowed upon this subject, will be of immense 
service to the rising generation. Children will be prepared to begin 
the study of Logic and Rhetoric; and will acquire, at an early age# 
a habit of correct thinking, speaking, and writing. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER Xlt 

1. What is Parsing ? 

How is it employed in the study of language ? 

2. How may it be considered ? 

How should words be studied ? 

What habit should scholars acquire 1 

What authority should be relied on ? 

In the first example given, what is good ? What degree of com- 
parison is it ? 

What is children ? What is the singular of it ? In what gender 
may it be ? 

What is obey ? What is its past tense ? What would be the form 
of the third person singular ? The imperative mood ? Infinitive? 

What is the ? Is it very definite ? 

What is expressed ? Does it also define by way of contrast with 
the unexpressed ? 

Wishes ? What is the singular ? Would the verb be in the same 
form ? I wish ; he wishes. Has it any gender ? Is it a material 
thing, or a desire of the mind ? 

Of? What does it mean ? Hovt^ was it formerly spelled ? Is it 
ever used as a verb ? Is it ever compounded with other words as an 
adjective ? Ojf-als, q/T-spring, offset. 

Their ? How does it define ? By personal relation to whom ? 

Teachers ? Is it properly the name of a thing ? or a character^ 
vocation, or condition of employment ? What is the verb ? 



ERRORS IN PRACTICE. 137 



CHAPTER XIIL 



ERRORS IN PRACTICE. 

1. Errors frequently occur both in spoken and written 
language, which mar its beauty, and hinder a correct and 
forcible expression. 

2. These errors exist in fact. They are produced either 
by a lack of correct ideas, or they originate in mistake, in 
the selection of improper words to signify our thoughts, or 
in not arranging such words according to the principles of 
Grammar. 

The common method of teaching " false grammar" to explain 
true principles, is as absurd as it is pernicious. It is like teaching 
a child falsehood that it may learn to tell the truth. Besides, most 
of the examples given under the head of false grammar, never ex- 
isted, save as intended mistakes. Why should it be thought neces- 
sary to make imaginary mistakes and learn children to know and 
correct them, when there are so many real ones to be removed ? 
The errors offered for correction are not generally bad English, but 
are bad grammar. 

3. A: very common error in practice is occasioned by a 
disregard of the exceptionless rule that an action expressed 
by a verb " must agree with the person and number of its 
agent ;" as. If thou would (wouldst)know the truth : There 
was (were) three or four present: If he were (was) here. 

Such errors generally occur in one of three ways. 

1. When two or more nouns, in the singular number, are united 
and stand as agents of a verb ; as, John and James was [were] there 
yesterday." 



138 ERRORS IN PRACTICE. 

2. When the agents come after the verb; as, *' There t^;as [were] 
two men drowned last week ;" * What signifies [y] our good word^, 
if our works do not correspond therewith?' " There is [are] as 
many SiS five or six of them." 

3. When the verb is placed at some distance from the agent ; as, 
**The objections, on which he insisted so strongly when he under- 
took to remove the difficulty, was [were] found to be unimportant." 

4. Was and were are often incorrectly used ; as, " we 
was [were] in the country." " If he were [was] here." 
*' Were [was] I to write/' " Was [were] you there ?" 

Much time and talent have been wasted in the attempt to prove 
that 7/ou is in the singular number. It is always plural in form, 
at least, and should have a verb agreeing with it in the plural. If 
it is right to say you was, why not to say you art ? Is the number 
of the pronoun changed on account of the tense of the verb ? 

5. Wrong adjectives which define by personal relation 
are often used ; as, " There was no one of them who had 
their \hi^ or her'] allowance granted." 

" I do not mean that I think any one to blame for taking 
due care o? their [his or her] health." — Addison. 

Our language may be regarded as defective in wanting some word 
or words to signify a third person singular, without distinction of 
gender, the same as in the first or second person, and in the plural 
number. We are now compelled to use two words, he or she ; him 
or her ; as, " They shall grant to him (or her) his (or her) portion." 

When no particular distinction is made, he and him are com- 
monly used. Man is often used in the same way, including the hu- 
man race, male and female. 

The want of words of this character is the occasion of the error 
noted above. Who shall coin a word to make up this evident defi- 
ciency ? 

6. When >defining adjectives are used without nouns ex- 
pressed, errors often occur in the use of the verb ; as, '^Each 
of the witnesses have [has] testified." " One of them are 
[is] wrong." 



ERRORS IN PRACTICE. 139 

7. The same error sometimes occurs when several nouns 
are mentioned in connexion ; as, ** Peter, or Paul, or some 
other apostle, have [has] said.'' In this instance, altho the 
verb agrees with each agent, it affirms of each separately 
or alternately, and not in connexion. 

8. Unnecessary words are frequently used, which ex- 
ceedingly injure the style of composition, and add nothing 
to its meaning or force ; as, " I have got a new book f' 
** She has got a beautiful dress ;" " I have got it at last ;" 
*^ I have got to be there at noon ; " " He has got ready." 
It is altogether preferable to omit the superfluous got, and 
say, " I have a new book." " I am to be there at noon/' 
" He is ready." 

The word going is often redundant, especially in conversalioa ; 
as, " I am going to do it ;" "I am going to come ;" "he is going 
to enter college next Commencement." It is better to omit this con- 
tinual going, or change the form of the expression, as, "I am to do 
it ;" '* I intend to do it ;" *' I shall do it soon," or some other way 
to avoid this bungling form. 

Students should be very careful to avoid all redundancies. They 
should choose the simplest and most expressive forms of utterance. 

9. The past tense and past participles are sometimes 
erroneously used ; as, " He has went [gone]," or " he is 
gone." ''I done [did] it." " Who done [did] this ?" 

10. The words have and had are often unnecessarily 
employed ; as, ** I had rather not do it." " You had better 
do it." *' I would, if I had have known it." Omit the 
adjectives, rather, letter, and known, and the error will ap- 
pear obvious. 

11. Pronouns are occasionally improperly used as ad- 
jectives ; as, " Give me them [those] books." *' Hand her 
them [those] pens." We do not say " give me him book." 

12. In poetry (or what is called poetry) pronouns are 



140 ERRORS IN PRACTICE. ^^. --- ^ ^ 'f^^ 

sometimes unnecessarily used, to fill out the measure ; as, 

** John he was blithesome and gay." 

** My dog he is trusty and true." 

" My banks they are furnished with bees." 

The same error sometimes occurs in conversation and 
prose writing. 

13. No direction can be given for the use of those nouns 
which express a multitude ; as, an army, a jury, etc. which 
may be considered either singular or plural. Judgement 
must govern. 

14. It is not in keeping with a pure and elegant style, 
nor consistent with the character and dignity of our Ian. 
guage to employ ybm^n terms which are not understood, 
and do not belong to our tongue. 

It is better to say a day, a quarter, a hundred, which see, there^ 
fore, example, &c. than per diem, per quarter, per centum, quod 
vide, ergo, e. g. Abbreviations which are understood are allowable. 

15. The contracted phrases, " donU, canH, shan^t, tainH, 
twonH^'' &c. should never be tolerated in writing, except by 
those who have " poetic licenses." They should be avoid, 
ed in conversation. 

16. To conclude : a particular error which the scholar 
should study to avoid, is the habit of using language erro- 
neously, whether oral or written. If he studiously avoids this 
error, he may save himself from the commission of others, 
and from the necessity of studying "false grammar." 



"^■^r^ 
^ ^ 



GRAMMAR 



OF THt 



H LANGUAGE' 



: CTPLES OF rnV.A 
SL.\SE, AND ADAPTED TO T ' ^; 



^ SCHOOLS. ACADEMIJES, AUD PBIVATE 
LBARNfiRS. 



BY WM S. BALCH 



t O ;o T C N 
M i; ^^ • \ 29 CORK a ILL. 

IS39. 







'Mi 



.■X'b 




